Culture of Europe in the 17th century. The culture of Western Europe in the 16th-17th centuries The culture of Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries

It arose during the period of the late Renaissance, and some researchers believe that it became a kind of reaction of the intelligentsia to whole line crisis phenomena during the Renaissance.

General characteristics of the era

Mannerism is a transitional stage from the early modern period. These were very difficult decades in the history of Western European countries. After all, it was then that the formation of new socio-political and economic systems took place. All this was connected with the conduct of wider wars, in which military-political alliances and even entire blocs of states participated. Within a number of countries there have been serious changes associated with the transition to the capitalist way of life.

In addition, the educated society of that time was especially shocked by the sack of Rome in 1527. All these changes could not but affect the worldview of educated circles. Mannerism is a kind of reaction to the crisis of humanistic ideals that glorified man and his existence. Therefore, many artists, sculptors and architects turned to new searches in their work.

Direction features

A new style originated in Italy, then spread to a number of European countries. First of all, his principles began to be shared by artists from France and the Netherlands. This direction is characterized by the following features: the desire to convey the harmony of the external and spiritual appearance, the elongation and elongation of the lines, the intensity of the poses. This was different from the harmonious perception of Renaissance artists, who sought to convey tranquility in their works, and also especially cared about the proportionality of forms in the composition.

In sculpture, the masters began to pay special attention to plasticity and elegance. In architecture, there was also a violation of the harmony of forms characteristic of the previous era.

In painting

The school of painting in Italy became the founder of a new direction. It developed in such cities as Florence, Mantua. Its most prominent representatives were Vasari, Giulio Romano and others. The paintings of artists of this direction are characterized by a complex composition, mythical congestion, a special, light color scheme. The topics were very diverse, but one of the main ones was the opposition of heavenly love and earthly love. Spiritualism was characteristic of many works of painters.

Its own school of painting has developed in France (in Fontainebleau). Many Dutch artists imitated Italian authors. Within the framework of this direction, interest arose in the revival of the knightly portrait and medieval themes.

Sculpture and buildings

Mannerism in architecture was also widely developed. Buildings in this style are characterized by a violation of the proportions and lines of the facades. The architects sought to arouse a feeling of concern in the viewer, which manifested the spirit of the era, namely the crisis of Renaissance values ​​and the loss of a sense of harmony and peace. One example of buildings in this style is the Laurentian Library in Florence (author - Michelangelo). In the same style, the square in Mantua was decorated, as well as the loggia in the gallery building in the Uffizi.

Mannerism is a transitional stage between the Renaissance and the Baroque. In sculpture, the same phenomena were observed as in architecture and painting. The most prominent representative is B. Cellini. His works are distinguished by underlined elegance and sophistication, even by some pretentiousness of shapes and colors.

Place in culture

Mannerism is an important stage in the history of art. Many researchers see in it the beginnings of Rococo and early Baroque. Of course, many elements of this trend affected subsequent trends. Baroque, for example, adopted from this direction the pretentiousness of forms, the complexity of the composition, Rococo - elegance and graceful manner of images. In general, mannerism in the visual arts, despite all the above features of performance technique, is a rather broad and loose concept.

For example, in the works of Renaissance artists, the features of this style are already traced. Raphael was one of the first to somewhat move away from the usual form of classicism and began to give elongation to his figures. In the canvases of Leonardo da Vinci, there are some features that portend mannerism: the underlined sophistication of some images and a special refinement, spirituality.

Influence

It is significant that the Renaissance and Mannerism diverged in defining the principles of artistic creation. After all, a new direction appeared just when the classical forms of the Renaissance were still considered a role model. But even more interesting is the fact that Mannerism proved to be very popular in the 20th century. There is even the concept of "neo-mannerism", by which it is customary to understand the imitation of some contemporary artists this direction. There is a point of view that this direction influenced the domestic art of the period Silver Age. The reasons for this influence should be sought in the fact that Mannerism was a transitional step between the Renaissance and the Baroque. It is inherently eclectic, so it is somewhat universal. In our time, mannerism is interesting for its unusual and pretentious forms, originality of approaches, as well as active search color solutions.

16th century passed under the sign humanism, which covered Italy, R.V., Germany, Hungary, France, England, Spain, Portugal, Poland, partly Scandinavia. There were various currents of humanism, from the epicurean-hedonistic to the civil. The centers of Renaissance culture, along with the burgher-patrician cities, became the courts of nobles, sovereigns, nobles, where exquisite artistic creativity, which often gave the culture features of elitism. The role of philanthropy increased, the social status of artists and scientists changed, who were forced to work on orders from the nobility, earning places at courts. Prices for works of art in Italy of the 15th century. - marble statue life size- 100-120 florins; a bronze statue of the Apostle Matthew - 945 florins + 93 for the architectural design of the niche; marble bas-relief - 30-50 florins; Michelangelo - for "Pieta" - 150 Roman ducats; Donatello for the monument to Gattamelatta - 1650 crown. Lear; curtain painting - 1.25 florins; altarpiece of the Siena family - 120 florins; the altar of Benozzo Gozzoli - 75 florins; V Papal Rome for each fresco in the Sistine Chapel at the end of the 15th century. the masters were paid 250 florins each, and the authors of the works were Botticelli, Rosselino, Perugino, Pinturicchio, Ghirlandaio, in general, the painting of the walls cost Sixtus IV 3,000 florins. For comparison - an ordinary house cost - 100-200 florins; "improved planning" - 300-400 florins (with 3 floors, but not a palazzo); Donatello paid 14-15 florins a year for the rent of the house; but it was possible to rent a house for a smaller amount from 6 to 35 florins. Rent of land stayors (43.6 m 2) - 3-4 florins; a pair of oxen - 25-27 florins; horse - 70-85 florins; cow - 15-20 florins; the cost of a minimum set of products (bread, meat, olive oil, wine, vegetables, fruits) for a family of 4 in the first quarter of the 15th century. = 30 florins per year. A visiting maid (helped with housework) received 7-8 florins a year; decent outerwear - 4-7 florins; but the rich dressed well, so Pitti mentions a caftan worth 100 florins; women's dress - 75 florins. The price of a work of art included the cost of the material, which in marble things = 1/3, in bronze - ½ of the amount paid by the customer, i.e. fee = ½ of the total amount. The masters demanded an advance. Mantegna at the court of Gonzaga received 50 ducats (600 per year) monthly, + housing, grain, firewood, + gifts and bonuses. When Leonardo da Vinci left for Milan in 1482, he was promised 2,000 ducats a year; but with Lodovico Moro's income of 650,000 Milanese ducats, Leonardo was not only an artist, but also a general military engineer. True, it is not known whether da Vinci received the promised amount.

The Reformation, and then the Counter-Reformation, led to a crisis of humanism, hitting the cheerful Renaissance worldview, leading to its weakening (40s of the 16th century), calling into question the feasibility of many of its ideals and emphasizing their illusory nature.

In the XVI-XVII centuries. made great strides natural science in Western Europe. This was associated with a radical change in the development of science, the rise of production and material culture in general. The development of industry, numerous inventions gave impetus to the theoretical development of many scientific issues. The increasing use of certain mechanisms (water, wheel) - expands the range of phenomena available to study from the field of mechanics and requires the solution of some problems of mechanics and mathematics. For example, the practical needs of art required the determination of the flight path of a cannonball, which led to the study of the laws of falling and the movement of bodies in general, etc. The rise of material production armed the natural scientist with new tools and means of scientific work. The development of handicraft technology prepared inventions in the 16th-17th centuries. many essential precision instruments for the development of the sciences. More perfect clocks, microscopes, a telescope, a thermometer, a hygrometer, a mercury barometer appear. Parchment was replaced by paper in the 15th century. the development of the printing press.

The first branch of natural science in which the new scientific spirit manifested itself was astronomy, where the geocentric theory was replaced by the heliocentric one. The foundations of the geocentric system were substantiated by Aristotle, mathematically developed by Hipparchus (II century BC), Ptolemy (II century AD), adopted by the Catholic Church. The author of the heliocentric system was Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543), who suggested that the Earth revolves around the Sun (in 1507). He devoted the rest of his life to the development of this doctrine. He created the work “On the Revolution of Heavenly Circles”, published in the year of death (shortly) in 1543. The first copy was received by him on the day of death. The Catholic Church stepped up. Luther: "As scripture indicates, Joshua commanded the sun to stop, not the earth." The ideas of Copernicus were continued in the works of Giordano Bruno (1548-1600) (burned in Rome in the Square of Flowers in 1600), who created a picture of the universe, the world is endless and filled with many celestial bodies, and the Sun is one of the stars. These sun-stars have planets revolving around them, similar to the Earth and even inhabited by living beings. For which Bruno became a heretic and, after 8 years of imprisonment, torture, was burned. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) (Pisan), lived in Florence, taught at the universities of Pisa, Padua, in 1610 in Florence, where he became "the first philosopher and mathematician" of the Duke of Tuscany. Galileo invented (applied) the telescope, in 1608 in Holland what he saw through the telescope he published in the Star Messenger (1610). In 1632, Galileo published The Dialogue on Two major systems world, Ptolemaic and Copernican. In 1633, Galileo was summoned to court in Rome (the Inquisition), where he renounced his views (“Ah, after all, she is spinning!”). He was found guilty of having supported doctrines "false and contrary to holy and divine scripture" and sentenced to imprisonment, commuted to a place assigned to him. Until his death, Galileo remained under the supervision of the Inquisition and was deprived of the right to publish his works. In 1638, in Holland, he managed to publish the book "Conversations and Mathematical Proofs Concerning Two New Branches of Science Relating to Mechanics and Local Motion", which summed up the results of his researchers in the field of mechanics. The final point in the victory of the heliocentric theory was put by Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) (he compiled horoscopes for Wallenstein), studied in Tübingen, lived in Graz, Prague, Linz, Regensburg. Studying Tycho Brahe's observations of the motion of the planet Mars, Kepler came to the conclusion that the planets move in ellipses, in one of the foci of which the Sun is located (Kepler's 1st law), and that the speed of the planets increases with approach to the Sun (2- and Kepler's law). First, these laws were established for Mars, later for other planets. Kepler's discoveries were published in 1609 in the work New Astronomy, Causally Based, or Celestial Physics, set forth in studies on the motions of the star Mars, according to the observations of the noblest husband Tycho Brahe. In the work "The Harmony of the World" (1619), Kepler formulated the 3rd law, establishing a relationship between the periods of revolution of the planets and their distance from the Sun. In 1627, Kepler published new, more accurate tables of planetary motions ("Rudolf Tables").

Break in development physics came later than in astronomy. Throughout the 16th century separate studies appear that reveal an approach alien to scholasticism to the study of the surrounding person to the study of the surrounding material world. These are the studies of Leonardo da Vinci, the Dutch engineer Stevin, who developed some problems of hydrostatistics (“Principles of Equilibrium” (1586), the English scientist William Herbert (1540-1603), who in his work “On the Magnet”, gave a description of the phenomena magnetism and electrical phenomena.

Leonardo was the first to propose the use of a cylinder with a piston, using air as driving force. And he made a working model of a wind weapon that fired at a distance of 800 meters. He expected to fly from Monte Ceceri (Swan Mountains). The lifebuoy invented by Leonardo was indeed a necessary invention. It is not known what material Leonardo intended to use, but the twin of his invention later became a traditional accessory to the ship and took on the appearance of a cortical circle covered with canvas.

A turning point in physics came in the 17th century. and was associated with the activities of Galileo, his physics was based on experience and the application of precise mathematical methods for analysis and generalizes the data of experience. Galileo - conducted a series of experiments and proved that all bodies under the influence of gravity fall with the same acceleration. To do this, he dropped the balls different weight from the Leaning Tower of Pisa, formulated (not in its final form) the law of inertia, the law of independence of the action of forces, derived the equation for uniform accelerated motion, determined the trajectory of a thrown body, began studying the oscillations of a pendulum, etc. Everything, this gives reason to consider Galileo the founder - kinematics, dynamics. Pupil Torricelli (1608-1647) developed some questions of hydrodynamics, began to study atmospheric pressure and created a mercury barometer. Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) continued the study of atmospheric pressure, proved that the column of mercury in the barometer is supported precisely by atmospheric pressure. He also discovered the law on the transfer of pressure in liquids and gases. Optics is evolving. In addition to the invention of the telescope, the microscope, there is a development of theoretical optics (the law of refraction of light).

At this time, the foundations of modern algebra. Several Italian mathematicians, including Girolamo Cardano (1501-1576), by the middle of the 16th century. develop a method for solving equations of the 3rd degree (Cardano's formula). One of Cardano's students discovers a way to solve equations of the 4th degree. At the beginning of the XVII century. logarithms are invented, the first tables of which (Nepera) were published in 1614. A system of mathematical symbols is developed for recording algebraic expressions (signs of addition, subtraction, exponentiation, root extraction, equality, brackets, etc.), this was especially evident in the works René Descartes, who gave them almost modern look. Trigonometry develops. Rene Descartes created analytic geometry.

In area botany and zoology multi-volume descriptions of plants and animals supplied with sketches are created. For example, the work of the Swiss botanist, zoologist, philologist Konrad Gesner (1516-1565) "The History of Animals". Organized botanical gardens, first in Italy, then in other European countries. In the XV-XVI centuries. a passion for gardens comes, in Rome - with the popes, in Florence - with the Medici, with d'Este - in Tivoli (outskirts of Rome), where there were 100 fountains, alleys, a garden of sculptures, stairs, trees and grass grew. The architects who were engaged in gardens - Pirro Ligorio (1500-1583), he liked to arrange secret gardens, something resembling a "green office"; Giacomo da Vignola, who built the Villa Giulia (Rome), Villa Lante. They arranged labyrinths from trees, which were in demand in England, labyrinths were carved from grass. This was done by Leonardo under Francis I. The height of the labyrinths was up to the knee, in the 17th century. became higher. There were also comic fountains (traps). But in 1543 there were no flowers in the gardens, only trees grew - beech, yew, forms made of stone and marble. As interest in botany grew, gardens consisting of ornamental grasses began to appear. The first was defeated in 1543 in Pisa, then in Padua (1545), in Florence (1550). Humanists began to observe the growth of plants, established their geographical origin. There were lovers, for example, Michele Antonio, a Venetian patrician, collected herbariums, and then transferred his treasures to the Marciana library. Palladio created gardens at Brenta that were an extension of architecture. Many Italian masters landscape gardening art worked at that time throughout Europe. King Charles VIII and his army were amazed at the villas and gardens of the kingdom of Naples, which they captured in 1495. Artisans who followed them on their return to France in the same year contributed to the widespread dissemination of these ideas. None other than the French Huguenot Salomon de Caus (circa 1576-1626) became the link between the horticultural tradition of Italy and the rest of Europe. He traveled in 1605 in Italy before going to Brussels to create a garden for the Archduke Albert. After 1610, Cows went to England, where he worked for the royal family - Prince Henry in Richmond, the Queen at Somerset House and Greenwich, and also at Hatfield House. In 1613, Kaus will follow Princess Elisabeth, who was married to Frederick V, to Heidelberg. There, the master will design the magnificent gardens of Hortus Palatinus, unfortunately not preserved.

For the first time, herbaria began to be compiled. The first natural science museums appear. Successes also appear in the study human body. Doctor Paracelsus (1493-1541), Girolamo Fracastoro (1480-1559), his work on infectious diseases was a milestone in epidemiology. Systematic and meticulous anatomical dissections begin. The forerunner of these ideas was Andrea Vesalius (1513-1564), the son of a Brussels pharmacist, court physician and surgeon, from 1527 professor of anatomy in Padua, Pisa, Bologna, Basel; since 1543 the first surgeon at the court of Charles V, then - Philip II. Accused of allegedly dissecting the body of a Spanish hidalgo, not dead, but only in a lethargic state. For this, he fell into the hands of the Inquisition, in the form of repentance he had to go to Jerusalem, to pray for his sin - on the opposite hand, the ship was wrecked by a storm near Zant in 1564. Vesalius published the work “On the structure human body". The foundations of the correct theory of blood circulation in humans are being created. This discovery was laid down by the works of Miguel Servet, continued in the writings of the English physician William Harvey (1578-1657). A famous surgeon was Ambroise Pare, who put an end to the terrible torment of patients who had to endure the pain of cauterization with a red-hot iron after amputation, with the help of a simple dressing invented by him. He came up with prostheses and tried them on soldiers. He discovered that gunshot wounds were not poisonous and therefore did not need to be treated with boiling oil, as was then widely practiced. Pain is best relieved with healing ointments and balms. He also advocated the need, in exceptional cases, to turn the baby in the womb before taking delivery. In England, Thomas Gale wrote a book on the treatment of gunshot wounds, John Woodwall dealt with the problem of amputation. In 1602, John Harvey began his practice, in 1628 he published a treatise on the activity of the heart and blood circulation. He was one of the founders of embryology. He suggested that animals in the period of embryonic development go through the stages of development of the animal world. One of the founders of microscopic anatomy was the Italian Marcello Malpighi. Complementing Harvey, he completed the development of a scientific theory of blood circulation.

At the beginning of the XVI century. to replace, and sometimes in addition to medieval alchemy, iatrochemistry comes, i.e. medical chemistry. One of its founders was the physician and naturalist Theophrastus von Hohenheim (Paracelsus). Iatrochemists, believing that the processes occurring in a living organism are, in fact, chemical processes, were engaged in the search for new chemical preparations suitable for the treatment of various diseases. In questions chemical theory iatrochemists have advanced little compared to their predecessors. As before, in their writings, the elements of all substances were called according to the ancient 4 elements (fire, air, water, earth), alchemically - "sulphur", "mercury" (in the 16th century - "salt" was added). In the second half of the XVII-beginning of the XVIII centuries. some new substances have been discovered. So, in 1669, the Hamburg amateur alchemist Brand discovered phosphorus (in 1680, R. Boyle independently obtained it).

The founders of the new chemical science are scientists of the 17th century. Holland Ya.B. Van Helmont and R. Boyle. Helmont was the first to correctly explain a number of chemical reactions of combination, decomposition, substitution, discovered carbon dioxide, calling it "forest gas" and introduced into scientific circulation the very concept of "gas" from the Greek. haos.

Typography. In the XVI century. printing possibilities began to be widely used. In 1518, Luther's letter against Eck, with a circulation of 1,400 copies, sold out in 2 days at the Frankfurt Fair. W. von Hutten's and Müntzer's works were popular. In 1525, the peasants distributed "12 articles", which went through 25 editions. From 1522 to 1534 Luther's translation of the New Testament went through 85 editions. In total, during the life of Luther, his translation of the Bible, in whole or in parts, was published 430 times. The growth dynamics of book production can be traced according to the following data: if before 1500, books of 35-45,000 titles were published in various countries of the world, then in the 16th century. - more than 242.000; in the 17th century - 972.300. From the invention of printing to 1700, 1,245,000 titles were published, and circulation increased from 300-350 in the 15th century. to 1000-1200 in the 17th century. Printing is firmly established throughout the world. In 1503, the first printing house appeared in Constantinople, then in Poland, Edinburgh (1508), Targovishte (1508). In 1512, a book was published in Venice in Armenian, in 1513 in Rome - in Ethiopian, etc. Until 1500, about 77% of books were published in Latin, only in England and Spain at the beginning of the 16th century. more books were published in local languages ​​than in Latin. Half a century later, the situation changed, in 1541-1550. of the 86 books in Spain, 14 were in Latin. An example of a large publishing manufactory can be called the enterprises of Anton Koberger. By the beginning of the XVI century. he became a prominent bookseller and publisher, and his business in Nuremberg grew enormously. large enterprises in the XVI-XVII centuries. there were few, dominated by small or medium-sized workshops, often family-owned. Their products are cheap prayer books, alphabet books, etc. Book fairs began to take shape - Lyon, Amsterdam, Frankfurt am Main (2 times a year - at Easter and on St. Michael's Day), catalogs of books began to be compiled, the initiator was Georg Viller. Later, the book trade center from the second half of the 16th century. becomes Leipzig. Gradually, book publishing in Germany began to lag behind Italian, French, and Dutch. In Basel in 1491, Johann Froben founded a printing house, and he was the first to pay royalties to authors. A special place in the XVI century. occupied by 4 entrepreneurs - Ald Manutsy, Henri Etienne, Christophe Plantin, Lodewijk Elsevier.

Ald Pius Manutius(1446-1515) - "prince of printers", the head of a whole generation of printers. Born in Bassano, studied here, then in Ferrara. Having studied the Greek language, he founded a printing house in 1488 in Venice. He was killed here in 1515. He used antiqua fonts, invented Italian cursive - Aldino (Italic). Aldus Manutius arrived in Venice either in 1488 or in 1489, after finishing his studies in Rome and Ferrara. Under the influence of the ideas of humanism, he had a burning desire to revive ancient antiquity by publishing the works of the Greek classics in the original language. In those days, many Greeks lived in Venice, who fled there from the Ottoman invasion. That is why it was there that Ald took up the implementation of his plans and created a kind of printing and publishing complex in the very center of the city. The first book published in this printing house is Musey's poem about Hero and Leander. (1494). It was followed by Erotemata (1495) - a Greek grammar that became a guide for several generations of students and scholars.

The most significant act of Alda Manutius was the release of the works of Aristotle in five volumes (1495-1498) and other Greek classics - Plato, Thucydides, Hesiod, Aristophanes, Herodotus, Xenophon, Euripides, Sophocles, Demosthenes. These publications created great fame for Aldu Manutia. They have been scientifically edited and tastefully designed. Following the example of the Platonic Academy and the Florentine Academy, founded by the Medici, the publisher rallied a circle of highly educated people around him, calling it the New Aldo Academy. The circle assisted the enlightened entrepreneur in the preparation of manuscripts.

For the publication of Roman authors, Ald decided to use the original font - italics, which was made for Ald by the Bolognese carver Francesco Raibolini, who was then living in Venice, from famous family jewelers Griffo. The Italians called this font aldino, and the French called italica.

In November 1502, the Venetian Senate by a special decree recognized Ald's exclusive right to use his new fonts. An attempt on this patent threatened with a fine and confiscation of the printing house. He was perhaps the first publisher who dared to publish books with a circulation of up to 1000 copies. Being also a practical person, Ald did not want the books he published to serve only as an amusement for the educated rich, but sought to ensure that the books he published were in wide demand. To this end, he tried to reduce the cost of the book itself by reducing the costs incurred. The path to this lay through the creation of small-format volumes, typed in tight font. A typical aldina (every major library has and is proud of such publications, at least in a small amount) is a small convenient volume bound in wood covered with leather. Going to the carriage, the owner could put a dozen of these books into the saddle sum.

Despite all efforts to make the book accessible to a wide range of readers, its distribution ran into significant difficulties. In Venice alone in 1481-1501. there were about a hundred printing houses, the total production of which amounted to about 2 million copies. A scarce commodity before the invention of printing, books, as a result of the widespread use of new technology, were thrown onto the market in larger quantities than they could be bought up. Not only Ald suffered at that time from overproduction. This became a common scourge of printers and publishers.

After the death of Alda in 1515 and until the moment when his son Paolo entered the age and could already manage affairs, the company was run by the closest relatives - Azolano. With great ambitions, but lacking sufficient education, they took over editing by firing the best editors. The affairs of the publishing house deteriorated sharply, and in 1529 it generally suspended work for four years. The activity of the publishing house resumed only in 1533, when Paolo Manuzio decided to restore the prestige of his father's enterprise. In the same year, he published about ten books and maintained this level until 1539. The treasury of Greek literature was almost exhausted by Ald himself, and therefore his son directed all his attention to the Roman classics. A huge contribution to science was the editions of the writings and letters of Cicero, carefully edited by him.

In 1540, Paolo Manuzio separated from the Azolano family and began to conduct publishing business on his own. Then the activity of the firm was continued by his son Ald the Younger; after his death in 1597, the publishing house existed for some time by inertia, and then fell into decline and died out. The sign of this illustrious firm - a dolphin and an anchor - was sometimes used later by other publishers.

Ald Manutius the Elder was a man of humanistic views and tried to keep himself independent of political and religious influences. His son and grandson were not so principled and willingly offered their services to the Roman Curia. Pope Pius IV, aware of the financial difficulties of Paolo Manuzio, in 1561 invited him as a technical adviser to the Vatican printing house, which he intended to make the center of Catholic propaganda. Paolo did not have the talent of an organizer, and under his leadership the papal printing house operated at first without much success. Only thanks to the perseverance of Pope Sixtus V, she avoided complete collapse. After the death of Paolo, Aldo Manuzio the Younger was brought in to lead it. The books that came out of the Alda printing house were called Aldina.

Henri Etienne(Stefanus) in 1504 or 1505 in Paris, not far from the university, he opened a printing house, where he began printing philosophical and theological treatises Étienne was a supporter of the new Renaissance style of book design, as evidenced in his editions of the frontispieces and initials, which are independent works of art. In 1520, the company was headed by Simon de Colin, since the children of Etienne are small, having married Etienne's widow. Since 1522, Simon de Colin's printed editions have featured J. Tory's finely crafted framing of the frontispiece and pages, as well as initials. Especially remarkable are the initials with floral ornaments - they were in the 16th century. copied by many printers. Books designed by Tories have a sign - a double Lorraine cross.

In 1524, the publishing house of de Colin and Tory undertook the publication of a series of Books of Hours. These elegant prayer books, decorated with great taste, represent the highest achievement of the book art of that time.

In 1529, Tori published a peculiar book in which he considers the problems of type and writing, it is called "Blossoming Meadow". Despite its allegorical and obscure mode of presentation, this book, richly decorated with woodcuts, was a huge success. King Francis I in 1530 awarded the author with the title of royal printer. However, Tory did not enjoy the honorary title for long: in 1533 he died.

In 1525, Simon de Colin transferred the printing house to Henri Etienne's son, Robert, and thanks to his energetic efforts, he made the printing house flourish in a short time. An excellent punch carver Claude Garamont played a significant role in this - a great connoisseur, like his teacher Tori, of all kinds of antiqua. The graceful Romanesque font he developed on the basis of the Alde antiqua quickly surpassed those used in Venice. Punch makers all over Europe have been willingly using it for at least 150 years.

Garamont also developed a Greek type, called royal, since it was made in 1540 by order of King Francis I. The Parisian school of printing characters enjoyed such prestige that in 1529 the king issued a decree separating this craft from the printers' shop. However, despite all his merits, Garamont died in 1561 in dire poverty. Thanks to the efforts of Garamon, the antiqua replaced the Gothic font in Western Europe and dominated for almost two centuries. Of course, this happened gradually and not so easily, since a kind of Gothic type, a bastard, in France produced luxuriously illustrated and very readable chivalric romances. The Gothic type lasted the longest in Germany.

Another prominent punch maker and printer, Robert Granjon, who provided Lyon printing houses with original typefaces, unsuccessfully tried to create a national French type based on Gothic italic with some elements of italic Italic. But publishing houses in France refused this typeface.

Henri Etienne had three sons: Francois, Robert and Charles. Everyone devoted themselves to the printed book and printed art, but the most fruitful was the activity of the middle one - Robert. He was 21 years old when he headed the family business, and, like his father, Robert was not an ordinary craftsman-typographer. He was distinguished by the breadth of educational interests and was especially fond of classical philology. His main work was a large etymological dictionary of the Latin language, published in 1532, which subsequently came out in several more editions and improved each time. Robert Etienne considered his main task to be the publication of carefully verified and well-formed works of the classics of antiquity. He began with Apuleius and Cicero. For publications in Greek, he used the already mentioned royal type, he printed in 1550 a luxurious folio containing the New Testament. The Greek font of Garamond and Etienne caused surprise and admiration in those days.

Robert Etienne published the Bible more than once in Latin, in ancient Greek and Hebrew. In addition, he dared to use the critical method and comments of Erasmus of Rotterdam and other humanists in restoring texts and clarifying obscure passages in the Bible. This provoked the wrath of theologians from the Sorbonne, who immediately accused the publisher of heresy. Fearing persecution, Etienne fled to Geneva in 1550, where many scientists from Catholic countries found shelter. There he founded a new printing house and worked in it until his death in 1559. In total, Robert published 600 books - much more than his father. He also introduced a new sign of the company - a philosopher under the tree of wisdom with falling dried branches - and the motto "Do not be wise, but be afraid." Various versions of this sign were also used by other printers and publishers. The fate of the rest of the offspring of the Etienne dynasty was not so glorious. Of the sons of Robert Etienne, the eldest, named after his grandfather Henri, was the most active. But after the death of his father, he inherited his enterprise in Geneva and set about publishing Greek books, editing them himself. Some of these texts were also discovered by him. In 1556 he published an anthology of Greek poetry, Greek Poets. Major Heroic Songs", which was praised as an example of scientific editing and excellent design.

In 1575, Henri Etienne the Younger published a huge etymological dictionary of the Greek language "Thesaurus linguae Graecae", which has not lost its scientific value to this day. For preparation it took many years of work. Being a man of broad views, an alien fanaticism and hypocrisy, Henri Etienne soon fell out of favor with the consistory of the local Calvinist church and was forced to return to France, where King Henry III, seeking reconciliation with the Huguenots, provided them with tolerable living conditions. There is almost nothing to tell about the further fate of the descendants of the Etiennes. None of the heirs of this dynasty played a significant role in the history of the book.

One of the most prominent printers of that time was Christophe Plantin(1514-1589). He was born in France in the village of Saint-Aventin near Tours in a poor family, he studied printing and bookbinding in Caen, from where he moved to Paris to open an independent business. According to his religious beliefs, C. Plantin was close to the Huguenots, which forced him in 1548 to leave for Antwerp. Perhaps the last impetus for this was the burning at the stake of the free-thinking printer Etienne - Dole. In Antwerp, in 1555, Plantin opened a printing house and a shop, but after his apprentice printed a Protestant prayer book without the knowledge of the master, and at that time religious intolerance reigned in Antwerp. Timely warned of the reprisals that threatened him, Plantin considered it good to hide in Paris and spend more than a year and a half there. Returning to Antwerp, he learned that his workshop was destroyed, and his property was sold under the hammer. Everything had to start over. Plantin set to work with zeal, and in a few years outperformed all competitors. The success of his publications was ensured primarily by exemplary design. Typefaces Plantin ordered from the best specialists of that time in this part - Garamont, Granjon, and later from Guillaume Le Baie. The prestige of Plantin was unusually high. In 1570, King Philip II of Spain (Flanders at the time belonged to the Spanish crown) honored him with the title of chief royal printer with the right to supervise all printing houses in Flanders and the Netherlands. Thanks to Philip, who also had influence in the Roman Curia, Plantin received from the pope a monopoly on the printing of liturgical books in the possessions of the Spanish monarch. For editions in the Flemish language, instead of the usual Gothic, he used a new civil type developed by Granjon. A 1557 book of type samples shows how well Plantin's printing house was equipped with types and equipment.

Plantin's extensive publishing program covered a wide variety of genres. From the very first experiments, Plantin specialized in the production of illustrated books. In the first decade of his work, he published many books richly decorated with woodcuts. His editions are characterized by a luxurious frontispiece in the Renaissance style. The greatest merit of his publishing house is also the use of engravings on copper and the spread of this method in Holland and other European countries. Copper engraving has been known in Italy since the 1950s. 16th century In particular, in 1556, Juan de Valverde's "Anatomy of the Human Body" was published in Rome, richly supplied with engravings on copper. But Plantin's engravings were better.

Plantin continuously expanded the scope of his activities. In 1567, he opened in Paris, which already three years later brought in thousands of florins. Another branch - in Salamanca (Spain) annually sold plantin editions for 5-15 thousand florins. In 1579, Plantin sent 67 titles to the Frankfurt Fair and sold 5,212 copies there. In terms of production and trade, he surpassed all known publishing firms, including the famous Etienne enterprise.

The French king called him to Paris, the Duke of Savoy offered the privilege of opening a printing house in Turin. However, Plantin did his best to expand the Antwerp enterprise, striving to make it the largest publishing house in Europe. For this, the entire Plantin family was mobilized. Eyewitnesses claim that even his 12-year-old daughter also read the rules for proofreading, often these were books in foreign languages. Already by 1570, Plantin achieved his goal, and his printing house became a model for all European enterprises of this type. It had 25 printing presses and 150 employees working without interruption. Every day the owner paid the workers 2200 crowns. The manufactory no longer fit in four buildings, and Plantin had to buy another house in the neighborhood (by the way, it has survived to this day).

However, on the very rise, Plantin's enterprise was destined to survive a new catastrophe. During the Dutch uprising against Spanish absolutism, Atwerp experienced a long siege and destruction. The printing house did not stop working during the siege, but at the end only one printing press remained in operation. And again, Plantin had to restore everything, which, thanks to his indefatigable energy and the help of friends, he eventually succeeded.

Plantin himself considered the Multilingual Bible (Biblia Poliglotta) a source of pride and the pinnacle of his activity, where the text ran in parallel in four languages ​​- Latin, Greek, Hebrew and Aramaic, and the New Testament was also in Syriac. The book was carefully edited and richly illustrated with magnificent engravings on copper, which belonged to the chisel of the greatest masters of that time. It was published in separate volumes in 1568-1573, its total circulation was 1212 copies. Twelve of them, printed on parchment, were intended as a gift to the Spanish king, ten more copies on excellent Italian paper - to other patrons and patrons of Plantin. One set of the Bible on the best Italian paper cost Plantin 200 florins, on Lyon paper - 100 florins, on trois paper - 70 florins. For those times, these were significant sums, and therefore the publication of the Multilingual Bible exhausted the material resources of the publisher. In order to replenish funds for the implementation of this large-scale plan sooner, Plantin began to produce prayer books in large quantities, also beautifully illustrated.

The difficulties with the publication of the Bible were not only of a material nature: the king allowed this edition to be distributed before he received permission from the pope, but the pope did not give such permission. The matter was settled only with the accession to the papal throne of a more indulgent spiritual ruler. And yet the clergy continued to be suspicious of this book, and one learned theologian even declared it heretical, the final permission to distribute the book was received only in 1580. All this red tape put Plantin on the verge of bankruptcy, and until his death he could not get out from financial difficulties.

Plantin's trademark is a hand lowered from the clouds, holding a compass, and the inscription "Constantia et labore" ("Constancy and labor"). This inscription in its own way characterizes the personality of the publisher, who was not an enlightening scientist, but a typical entrepreneur of the era of manufacturing capitalism. Plantin published at least 981 books (that's the number of registered titles). Some believe that the actual number of his editions exceeds 1000.

After Plantin's death in 1589, his printing houses in Antwerp and Leiden were left with 14 presses, 103 sets of matrices, 48,647 pounds of type, 2,302 copper engravings, and 7,493 woodcuts, not counting a huge stock of initials carved on wood and copper.

Plantin's work was continued by members of his family, Plantin's son-in-law Balthazar Moret became the head of the enterprise, the publishing house produced mainly Catholic religious literature. The great Peter Paul Rubens provided this enterprise with engravings on copper. It flourished for more than three centuries - until 1871, and in 1876 the city authorities of Antwerp bought it together with inventory for 1 million 200 thousand francs in order to open one of the most interesting book and printing museums in Europe - the Museum - Plantin.

Plantin's ledgers mention the name of a bookbinder Lodewijk Elsevier from Louvain. Subsequently, this bookbinder, who studied printing under Plantin, became the ancestor of the venerable publishing dynasty of the Elseviers. Lodewijk Elsevier was born about 1546 in Louvain in the family of a printer. Fate brought him to Antwerp, where he opened a bookbinding workshop. When Spanish troops under the command of the Duke of Alba captured Antwerp, many of the Protestant residents were forced to flee. Lodewijk Elsevier also fled. However, when the situation in the northern Netherlands turned in favor of Protestantism, he moved to Leiden, an ancient city founded by the Romans. Gradually Leiden became important center trade. A university was founded here, which soon became one of the foremost educational institutions in Europe. All this opened up wide opportunities for organizing a large book publishing enterprise, when Elsevier settled in Leiden, there were many publishers and booksellers there, so the competition was very serious. Lacking the means to set up a publishing house, Lodewijk Elsevier decided first to accumulate large capital in the book trade, and, being a man on a grand scale, he took up not petty trading, but wholesale brokerage. He was one of the first organizers of book auctions in Europe. In 1604, Elsevier began to buy books by entire libraries and sell them publicly under the hammer. Book collection auctions have been the specialty of the Elsevier firm for over a century. Success in trading operations soon allowed Lodewijk to move to publishing. At first he published one book a year, and by the end of his life, 10 books with his trademark appeared on the market annually. Proximity to enlightened circles was reflected in the fact that L. Elsevier published special literature for scientists and students. Most of its publications were written in the language of science - Latin by the then most prominent professors at Leiden and some other universities.

In 1617, Elsevier died, leaving his sons a financially secure and prestigious publishing and bookselling enterprise.

The eldest son of Lodewijk Matthias (1565-1640) and the youngest - Bonaventure (1583-1652) helped his father to expand the Leiden enterprise, but it was not them, but Matthias's son Isaac (1596-1651) who gave it a special brilliance. Having married a bride with a large dowry, he bought a large printing house with the blessing of his grandfather. When, after the death of their father, Matthias and Bonaventure inherited his enterprise, it turned out to be very convenient for them to print all the books in the printing house of Isaac Elsevier. This printing house has become famous for the speed and impeccable quality of order fulfillment. In 1620, Isaac Elsevier received the title of university printer, but five years later, for reasons unknown to us, he sold his flourishing printing house to his uncle Bonaventure and older brother Abraham (1592-1652). Bonaventure took over the sale of the products of the printing house, and Abraham - the printing business. This partnership continued for twenty-seven years. They published about 18 books a year. At the beginning of their activity, Bonaventure and Abraham were mainly engaged in the publication of scientific literature and the works of the Roman classics. Then they began to publish books in French, Dutch, and on the history of Holland. It is difficult to determine in which area of ​​book production the contribution of the Elseviers was the most significant. These were publishers, and printers, booksellers, and even book dealers. Constant and close contacts with the book market and readers brought them considerable benefits: they knew better than others the needs of the market, the purchasing power clientele, felt the intellectual demand of the era.

And yet their main merit is the distribution of excellent and relatively cheap books. The Elseviers can rightfully be considered "pioneers in the popularization of the book." They tried to give the reader a well-edited book, but since neither they nor most of their proofreaders and the editors were not scientists, there were editions edited carelessly. However, this did not harm the prestige of the Elseviers - the then scientists and writers considered it an honor for themselves if the company undertook to publish their works; many authors were proud of their personal acquaintance with the Elseviers. Publishers also "discovered" such luminaries of science and literature as Rabelais, Calvin, Bacon, Descartes, Gassendi, Pascal, Milton, Racine, Corneille, Moliere. The Elseviers published books in various formats, and a series of classic literature was published in the in-quarto format. They also took on folios, but mostly small-format books in the twelfth or twenty-fourth part of a sheet are associated with the name of the Elseviers, printed in a clear, delicately thin, but sometimes monotonous type and decorated with excellent copper engraving with a frontispiece, intricate vignettes and initials. It was the Elzevirs who established the small format on the book market and thus gave book publishing and the book trade a powerful new impetus that made the book accessible to the general population.

In the XVI-XVII centuries. is experiencing success cartography. In the first half of the XVI century. the centers of cartography were the cities of Italy - Venice, Genoa, Florence, Rome. From the middle of the XVI century. the center for the development of cartography moves from Italy to RV, Flanders. Prominent cartographers are Gerard Mercator, Abraham Ortelius and Willem Janszoon Blau, and the Frenchman Nicola Sanson. Mercator coined the term "atlas" - a collection of maps (1585). Mercator's friend and rival Aram Ortelius (1527-1598) in 1564 published a map of the world, and then the Theater of the Circle of the Earth, where for the first time references were made to the geographers whose works he used. The first attempt at compiling a work on general geography was undertaken by the Dutchman B. Varenius in 1650. While Varenius focused on physical geography, the Frenchman Davinius in his book The World (1660) was the first to give economic information about European states.

Until the beginning of the XVI century. urban libraries did not have. They began to emerge through the Reformation. These were urban, school, university. Good Libraries were in Jesuit schools, as well as at the Sorbonne, Oxford, Cambridge, in 1638-1639. John Harvard founded the first college in North America and had a research library. The library of Uppsala University was replenished in the 17th century. trophies from Germany (XXX war), so the Bible of Ulfila got here. Know also collected books. It was a prestigious hobby. For example, Philip II collected books, but did not allow anyone to the treasures of Escorial. To which the Archbishop of Tarragona wrote to his correspondent: "So many good books are collected there, and to make them inaccessible means to do more harm than good." ("book cemetery"). The monarchs of the 16th-17th centuries, following the spirit of the times, opened the doors of museums and book collections to scientists. In Germany, the library in Heidelberg ("princely") was popular - "the mother of all libraries in Germany." In 1622, during the XXX War, the troops of the Catholic League under the command of Tilly stormed Heidelberg, the entire library fell into the hands of Maximilian of Bavaria, who decided to give it to the pope. The richest libraries were those of the French king and the library of Mazarin. The Royal Library was founded in 1518 by Francis I. In the 17th century. it contained about 16,000 handwritten and 1,000 printed books, at the beginning of the 18th century. - 70,000 printed and 15,000 manuscripts. Then in Paris it was decided to create public library, the idea belonged to Richelieu, and was embodied by Mazarin. Librarian (fanatic) Gabriel Naudet (1600-1653). In January 1652, the library was confiscated from Mazarin, Naudet was in deep depression, he was invited by Queen Christina to Sweden to be at her library. After Mazarin again came to power in 1653, Naudet returned to France, but died as soon as he entered French soil. Dad had a good library. In 1690, it was replenished with the book treasure of Christina, who moved to Rome. In the XVI-XVII centuries. the deception of vigilant censorship has become a kind of art. Anonymous publications, fictitious addresses, pseudonyms were used, the year of publication was changed. So, "Letters of dark people", published in Germany, were provided with references to Ald. In 1616, Theodore Agrippa d'Aubigne anonymously printed "Tragic Poems" in his own printing house and indicated the place of publication of "In the Desert" under an empty cartouche instead of a publisher's sign.

Realm of everyday existence always attracted the attention of scientists. Until recently, attention was paid mainly to the living conditions and life of the higher social strata, modern science strives to reconstruct the mass structures of everyday life. Although now the life of the city is better known than the countryside, the way of life of the rich is better than the social lower classes, some regions are more fully studied than others. But in the XVI-XVII centuries. V Everyday life much in common with the Middle Ages proper. Nutrition is due to the natural seasonal rhythm, depending on the climate. XVI-XVII centuries - the time of a sharp increase in the quality of life, but the needs of people, the nature of their consumption was largely determined by climatic conditions. Life was easier, cheaper in the mild climate areas (Mediterranean) than north of the Alps, not to mention the northern and eastern regions of Europe. It was harder to live in the mountainous regions than in the valley and on the plain. The principle of self-sufficiency still prevailed. The influence of the market was stronger where it was about luxury goods, overseas rarities, providing export crafts with raw materials, etc. It was more tangible in Western and Central Europe, where the centers of the economic and political life of the European world moved. In the crafts associated with the production of food, essentials, small traditional forms of organization were especially stable. The workshops of bakers and butchers were small, but specialized (baking white, black, gray bread, confectioners, pastries). Where there was demand, there was a large-scale production of food and beverages (for example, Lisbon, where there were bakeries that made sea rusks). At this time, the vast majority of the population, more than half of what it produced or earned, consumed or spent on food. So, E. Cholier, who studied the standard of living in Antwerp in the 15th-16th centuries (the highest in Europe at that time), provides data on the distribution of expenses of a bricklayer family of 5 people: for food - 78.5% (of which - for " bread" - 49.4%); for housing, lighting, fuel - 11.4%; clothes and other - 10.1%.

The most important food for the general population were cereals - rye, barley, millet, oats, wheat (Mediterranean), in the XVI century. - rice, maize, buckwheat (in Northern Europe). They cooked soups, cereals, bread. Then came the beans. There were "seasonal supplements" - vegetables and greens: spinach, lettuce, parsley, garlic, pumpkin, carrots, turnips, cabbage, nuts, berries, fruits.

Addition to plant foods was fish and seafood (especially in seaside and coastal areas). The fish were bred in special ponds, kept in cages. Trade in sea fish (herring, cod, sardines, etc.) live, salted, smoked, dried, has become entrepreneurial activity. Fish was eaten on fasting days (166 (or more, according to other sources) days a year). The church forbade the eating of meat and animal fats for more than 150 "fast" days a year.

On the same days, the trade in meat, butter, eggs was banned, an exception was made for the sick and Jews. The ban was violated. Meat is an important component of nutrition in many areas and countries of Europe at the beginning of modern times. Pork, beef, but sheep and goats were also bred for meat, lamb was appreciated in England. Game and poultry were consumed more in the cities than in the countryside.

The daily diet included intoxicating drinks: beer, wine, "honey", kvass (in Eastern Europe). From the 16th century beer was used more than honey. Beer was produced in households, but there were also professional brewers. Some regions turned into areas where beer was produced for export ( Central Europe, R.V., England). Moreover, each region specialized in a special kind of beer. From the 16th century Commodity production of strong alcoholic beverages - "hot wine" - began. Its centers were Southern France (Bordeaux, Cognac), Andalusia, Catalonia. In R.V., Northern Germany, schnapps was made by distilling grain. In Germany, aquavita was driven in Schleswig-Holstein, Westphalia, in Denmark - in Aalborg. New varieties of grape wines appeared - Alsatian, Neckar, Mainz, Moselle, Rhine, Osterwein, Tokay. In the 17th century - champagne. Their drinks were in the areas of fruit gardening - from apples - apfelmost - in Swabia; cider - in Brittany, Normandy, Galicia; from pears - Birnenmost (Bavaria), from cherries - in Hildesheim, etc. Wine and intoxicating drinks still perform various functions in everyday life: just drinking, components of culinary recipes, medicines. As a means of communication - in feasts and official ceremonies. Wine consumption was high: in Provence - in the XV century. - 1 to 2 liters per person per day; in the army of Charles VII - 2 l, in Narbonne - at the beginning of the 16th century. - 1.7 l. Contemporaries believed that the XVI century. in Germany - "a century of drunkenness". In the 17th century Europe starts drinking chocolate, coffee and tea.

In the XVI-XVII centuries. increased consumption of sugar. Sugarcane plantations and processing plants are expanding. Along with the traditional centers of sugar production - Genoa, Venice, Barcelona, ​​Valencia - sugar factories after 1500 appear in Lisbon, Seville, Antwerp.

The structure of nutrition continued to vary by region and social class. Johann Boemus (beginning of the 16th century) in his “Eating Habits in Germany” wrote that “the nobility has expensive food, the burghers live in moderation. Workers eat 4 times a day, idle - 2. Peasant food - bread, oatmeal, boiled beans, drink - water or whey. They bake in Saxony White bread drink beer, their food is heavy. Westphalians eat brown bread, drink beer. Wine is consumed only by the rich, as it is brought from the Rhine, and it is very expensive.”

Culinary literature begins to be in demand, where there was a strong Slavic and Italian influence. In 1530, a cookbook by the Italian humanist Platinum (XV century) was published in Augsburg. There are also manuals for housewives, which talk about how to store the strategic stocks of the family. Caloric content of the daily diet: in the XIV-XV centuries. - from 2500 to 6000-7000 calories for the rich. In general, researchers note that for the broad masses of the population of Central and Western Europe, it is declining compared to the end of the 15th century. - consumption of meat and a diet of the type is established - porridge-slurry (mousse-bray). The imbalance in nutrition is especially noticeable during the years of hunger strikes.

Such frequent periods of famine led to the fact that the people had a dream of a country where there is no place for hunger and problems (most importantly, there is no need to work). The popular utopia has many names, it appears under different images. The British have the country of Cokaine, the French have Kokan, the Italians have Kukanya, the Germans have Schlarafenland, as well as the Country of Youth, Luberland, the Paradise of the poor, Candy Mountain. Brueghel depicted her with characteristic features - roofs of pies; a roast pig running away with a knife in his side; dumpling mountain; people lounging in comfortable positions waiting for the tidbits to fall into their mouths. The gingerbread house found in the forest by Hans and Gretchen also belongs to utopia. This is the abbey of Tellem Rabelais, with the motto: "Do what you want." The country of Kokayne is in the west: "In the sea to the west of the country of Spain, / There is an island that people call Kokayne", according to Celtic mythology, paradise is in the west, but the Christian church has always taught that paradise is in the east. A. Morton suggests that the dream of Cockayne led to the search for a way to America.

Costume. In 1614, a pamphlet appeared in France condemning the luxury of the nobility, written by a prominent Huguenot. There have always been prohibitions to wear the bourgeois what the nobility wears. Clothing was strictly social in nature. Royal ordinances on this subject were known from the end of the 15th-16th-17th centuries, then they fade away. There were prohibitions on wearing precious stones on clothes, on fingers, various jewelry, and it was also prescribed what should be worn and what should not be worn. This existed until the revolution. It was assumed that there were no restrictions on dress for kings and (almost) for courtiers. They were allowed to wear clothes made of silk, linen, wool. Usually the kings wore a woolen drape with a pattern, taffeta, velor, camlot, more often these were fabrics brought from England, China, Holland, and India. But the need for good fabrics led to the encouragement of their own textile production. Color regulation was preserved - for the upper classes - black, red, blue, purple, pink gray, blue, drape scarlet - bright red. In the XV century. white comes into use, at first rarely, then more and more used in clothing, but these fabrics and drapes were forbidden to the bourgeoisie. The bans were not enforced. Although wearing ties, embroideries, jewelry was considered a privilege of the nobility.

It was fashionable to wear furs. Ermine fur is a sign of royalty. The width of the fur was recognized by the social status. The furs of squirrels, martens, beavers, muskrats, foxes, sheepskins, red squirrels could be worn by the bourgeoisie.

Precious and semi-precious stones - diamond, ruby, carnelian, coral, sapphire, emerald, agate - the privilege of the nobility. Stones were also worn because they were given a magical meaning. Buttons at first performed a purely decorative function, it was fashionable to sew on bells. Cuffs, scarves, gloves, collars were made from lace. They still wore several dresses at the same time. The nobles, in addition to the dress, wore a cloak, a mantle made of silk, wool, decorated with embroidery, draped. For a simple nobleman, a short cloak was supposed, a sign - of special dignity - a long cloak dragging along the floor.

Headdress - military - helmet - the king has either gold or gilded, princes of the blood, dukes - silver, commoners - iron; in ordinary times - they wore a mortier - a small short cap worn by the king, his retinue, princes of the blood, the chancellor, peers, the president of parliament, he had a mortier with two rows of galloons; the king's mortier was trimmed with ermine. By the beginning of the XVIII century. goes out of fashion, worn only on solemn occasions, during the exit of the king, queen, mortier put on weapons. A cap - bonnet - of a small volume was worn by barons, decorated with pearls, in addition, they wore baret and current. The nobles wore hats that were trimmed with galloons, precious stones, ostrich feathers. The custom of taking off the headgear appears at the end of the 17th century. in all cases indoors, an exception was made for the king. The right to sit in the presence of the king had 12 dukes on stools, the rest were standing. (right stool).

Shoes. The nobles wore shoes, boots, in the XV-XVI centuries. they wore shoes with long toes, and the length of the toes of the shoe was determined in the ordinances - for the nobles 24-25 inches, 14 inches was supposed to be for the townspeople. Secular and military boots differed, secular ones had bells, ribbons, lace; shoes at the knees were tied with bows. There were several pairs of socks, fashionistas had woolen, silk ones.

An indispensable accessory of the costume were gloves - leather with decorations, with lace, patterns, impregnated with perfume. Marie de Medici bought expensive gloves that cost several villages. While Italian and Oriental perfumes were used, French ones appeared at the end of the 16th century. A man from high society - associated with gloves.

Collars of the 16th century - flat cutters. Skirts - puffy, made on a frame, reached several meters in diameter. It was necessary to be able to wear them, a long train was supposed to be attached to the skirt - manto-de-cours. But not every noblewoman could afford a long train. In 1710, it was said that the queen has a train of 11 cubits, for her daughter - 9, granddaughter - 7, princess - 5, duchess - 3. The high hat - ennen was replaced in the 16th century. small, in the XVI-XVII centuries. walked with an open head, but with complex hairstyles. Shoes made of velvet and brocade, clothes were complemented by a muff and a fan, a small mirror.

Rapid change of fashion in the XVI-XVII centuries. was explained by the fact that the ruling class sought to withdraw into its own circle, since the bourgeoisie tried to penetrate into the higher nobility by buying estates and annobling.

From the end of the 16th century with the advent of mercantilism, the state forbade spending on a suit, the church also advocated this. The pope himself issues a series of bulls threatening women of fashion with excommunication. They were followed by royal prescriptions. Thus, ordinances against luxury were issued in 1613, 1624, 1634, 1636, 1639, 1644, 1656, 1660, 1679. It was forbidden for all subjects to wear imported things, except public women and swindlers who did not comply with the order were fined, sometimes their clothes were confiscated.

The Huguenot costume was strict, dark in color, without decorations. Sully's costume was made of magnificent drape, velour, velvet. From the end of the 17th century fashion was dictated by the king's court. With the strengthening of the bourgeoisie, the adherence of the nobles to fashion begins to be ridiculed. Fashionable clothes = idleness. "A nobleman carries all his income on his shoulders."

The highest clergy used the most expensive fabrics for their robes. Cardinals and bishops had the most luxurious vestments, their clothes were decorated with embroidery, precious stones, and furs. Cardinals wore a red robe, white or lilac for bishops, and their hair was cut short. Each order had its own costume, members of the monastic orders were recognizable by their hooded robes, sandals on thick clothes and differed in color - Franciscans - brown, Dominicans - white, Jesuits, Capuchins could wear secular dress. From 1549, a royal ordinance ordered the clergy to dress modestly, not to wear an arquebus, not to go where it was not supposed to, i.b. in taverns, etc.

From the middle of the XV century. a bourgeois estate is formed, its costume differs from that of the nobility until the bourgeoisie has realized itself as a class. The nobility of the mantle, the bourgeois, who acquired fief, wore a robe (roben). In 1614, in the States General, it was forbidden, under a fine of 1,000 ecu, to wear bourgeois noble clothes. From the end of the 17th century the bourgeois, who wore noble attire, aroused ridicule. See plays by Molière. Bourgeois dress - from inexpensive fabrics, linen, dark colors. Bourgeois women wore dresses made of grisette fabric (gray) (grisette = poor bourgeois), no decorations, except for lace - guez. On the head is a chaperon - a cap or mantilla, the neck was covered with scarves. Puffy skirts, (several), the top one is the most expensive to keep, it was pinned up and everyone else was visible. Footwear - leather shoes.

The peasant suit is functional. To make it convenient to work. The fabrics that went to the costume were canvas, homespun linen, artisans used drape for tailoring. Colors - soft, gray, blue. Festive clothes were sewn from velor and silk. The wedding dress was extremely good, which was sewn from expensive fabric and passed down from generation to generation. The chest of the woman was described, the wedding suit was included in the inventory. A wedding cap - chapeau de roses was given by the father, moreover, it was a must. In some provinces, girls did not receive land, but received chapeau de roses. Men wore short pants, a linen shirt, women wore short dresses. The headdress for men is a felt hat, for ladies - a cap. For winter clothes, rabbit, sheep, and dog fur was used. Shoes - bare feet, clogs, rope shoes, rough leather shoes. (See Le Nain brothers). Engravings by Callot - give an idea of ​​the clothes of the urban poor.

There were livery costumes - the people of the king, duke, prince, baron are dressed in the same costumes, often from the master's shoulder. On the occasion of church holidays, the clientele is usually presented with cloth or dresses. Members of the royal, city council, pages, officials of the state apparatus also had the same costume. The king and his relatives had a suit of silk or velor in black or red. The courtiers wore a gray suit. An official suit appears - for everyday wear - black, for holidays - red. All black dressed judges, lawyers, doctors, scientists. The king's advisers have a black bottom robe, a red top. The president of the royal council wore a black jacket, a long black cloak. Members of the city municipality dressed in city colors. For France - red-white, blue. Parisian echevins wore black robes, scarlet robes, white collars. The Dijon municipality preferred clothes with a predominant lilac color - the color of Burgundy.

The rector of the University of Paris wore a blue cape trimmed with ermine. Deans - red, with expensive fur, masters - black capes. Doctors of theology put on a cap - baret (bone). Students wore a black jacket, purple pants, but they could dress differently. Students of senior faculties wore a bone′ caret - a 4-coal hat.

Color was still of great importance. The preferred layers are red, as well as black combined with red. The colors of infamy are green and yellow. A green headdress distinguished the debtor. Yellow color - meant belonging to the Jews, who were ordered to wear circles on their sleeves from the age of 12, for women - on the head of yellow - a coral. Only Jewish doctors were not required to wear these badges. Courtesans wore black gloves, a white ribbon or a circle of other fabric on their sleeves. They were not allowed to wear collared dresses, veils and furs. But of course this is all in theory...

Since the 17th century fashion itself appears, since 1672, when the first fashion magazine was published. Moreover, to be dressed like a king means to express your loyalty.

From the middle of the XV-XVI centuries. there is an increase begging, vagrancy. There was a hierarchy among the poor and beggars - the privileged, the domestic poor, the inhabitants of shelters, hospitals, conventions. Then came those who had privileges to collect alms - pilgrims, monks of mendicant orders, guild students, schoolchildren, students, vagabonds were landsknechts returning from service, from Turkish captivity. The most cohesive organization was the blind, who had their own "king". Alms were collected on the streets, at the temple, in the temple itself, and "at the door." The process of pauperization, the growth of begging, vagrancy led to the fact that the authorities considered vagrants as a dangerous element that needed to be fought: control of the poor, limiting the influx of newcomers, a charity system.

Holidays. Religious. winter cycle. Pre-Christmas - November 11 - St. Martina (Martynov goose), 25.12. - Christmas - Christmas time, processions, mysteries, games; 2.

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era classicism baroque european

XVI-XVII centuries It is customary to call the time of the birth of bourgeois civilization, thereby explaining the savagery and cruelty of this era by the need to accumulate primary capital. In fact, the formation of this civilization began much earlier and initially brought people not poverty and slavery, but the development of manufactories and crafts, the creation of universities and schools, and, most importantly, the growth of freedom, manifested in the formation of various institutions of self-government, as well as representative institutions - parliaments.

XVII-XVIII centuries occupy a special place in the history of modern times. It was a period of transition full of contradictions and struggles, which ended the history of European feudalism and marked the beginning of a period of victory and the establishment of capitalism in the advanced countries of Europe and America.

The elements of capitalist production originated in the depths of the feudal system. By the middle of the 17th century, the contradictions between capitalism and feudalism had acquired a pan-European character. Already in the 16th century, the first victorious bourgeois revolution took place in the Netherlands, as a result of which Holland became "an exemplary capitalist country of the 17th century." But this victory of the capitalist economy and bourgeois ideology still had a limited, local significance. In England, these contradictions culminated in a bourgeois revolution "on a European scale." Simultaneously with the English bourgeois revolution, revolutionary movements took place in France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Russia, Poland and a number of other countries. On the European continent, however, feudalism held out. For another century the ruling circles of these states pursued a policy of feudal "stabilization." Almost everywhere in Europe feudal-absolutist monarchies are preserved, the nobility remains the ruling class.

The economic and political development of European countries proceeded unevenly.

In the 17th century, Holland was the largest colonial and commercial power in Europe. The victorious bourgeois revolution of the 16th century not only ensured the successful development of the capitalist economy and trade, but also turned Holland into the freest country in Europe - the center of advanced bourgeois culture, progressive printing, and the book trade.

However, at the end of the 17th century, Holland was forced to give way to England, and then to France - countries where there was a more reliable industrial base for trade. In the 18th century, the Dutch economy experienced stagnation and decline. England comes first in the world. France by this time was on the verge of a bourgeois revolution.

Absolutist Spain - in the 16th century one of the powerful states of Europe - in the 17th century found itself in a state of deep economic and political decline. It remains a backward feudal country. In this era, Italy is experiencing a severe economic and political crisis, since the middle of the 16th century it has partially lost its national independence.

The transition from feudalism to capitalism was carried out mainly as a result of two bourgeois revolutions: English (1640-1660) and French (1789-1794). Especially great is the significance of the French bourgeois-democratic revolution, which opened a new era in the development of culture.

The seventeenth century was of particular importance for the formation of national cultures of modern times. In this era, the process of localization of large national art schools was completed, the originality of which was determined as the conditions historical development, and the artistic tradition that has developed in each country - Italy, Flanders, Holland, Spain, France. Developing in many ways the traditions of the Renaissance, the artists of the 17th century significantly expanded the range of their interests and deepened the cognitive range of art.

The desire for a broad display of reality led in the 17th century to a variety of genre forms. In the visual arts, along with traditional mythological and biblical genres, secular ones are gaining an independent place: household genre, landscape, portrait, still life. Complex relationships and the struggle of social forces give rise to a variety of artistic and ideological trends. Unlike previous historical periods, when art developed within the framework of homogeneous large styles ( Roman style, Gothic, Renaissance).

The breakthrough in Europe was due to changes in production relations in the Netherlands and England due to bourgeois revolutions, which took place here much earlier than in other countries.

In 1566, a popular uprising broke out, and a bourgeois revolution began in the Netherlands. The attempts of Philip II to stop the resistance of the Dutch people by executions and atrocities did not break his will to fight. The main milestones of revolutionary events: the popular iconoclastic uprising of 1566 in the southern provinces; the general uprising of 1572 in the northern provinces; an uprising in 1576 in the southern provinces; Creation of the Union of Utrecht in 1579

The Dutch bourgeois revolution ended with the liberation of the northern provinces from Spanish domination and the formation of the bourgeois republic of the United Provinces.

Seven provinces united into one state with a common government, treasury and army. Holland, as the most economically developed province, became the head of the Republic of the United Provinces.

By the middle of the XVII century. England has achieved significant success in the development of industry and trade. The basis of the country's economic progress was the development of new forms of production - capitalist manufactory (mainly in the form of scattered manufactory).

One of the most important features of the English bourgeois revolution is its peculiar ideology, the draping of its class and political goals. The assault on absolutism in England began with the assault on its ideology, ethics and morals, which were embodied in the doctrine of the semi-Catholic state Anglican Church. The English Revolution gave a powerful impetus to the process of primitive accumulation of capital (the "depeasantization" of the countryside, the transformation of peasants into hired workers, the strengthening of enclosures, the replacement of peasant holdings by large farms of the capitalist type); it provided complete freedom of action for the rising class of the bourgeoisie, paved the way for the industrial revolution of the 18th century. just as Puritanism loosened the soil for the English Enlightenment. In the field of political revolutionary struggle of the masses in the middle of the XVII century. ensured the transition from the feudal monarchy of the Middle Ages to the bourgeois monarchy of modern times.

In the XVI-XVII centuries. European science has reached new frontiers. Advanced thinkers, having explored the Universe with the help of scientific instruments, have drawn a completely new picture of the universe and the place of mankind in it. The scientific revolution was made possible thanks to the dynamic development of a society that has already achieved significant technological progress. Firearms, gunpowder, and ocean-crossing ships enabled Europeans to discover, explore, and map much of the world, and the invention of printing meant that any documented information quickly became available to scientists across the continent. Beginning in the 16th century, the relationship between society, science, and technology became ever closer as progress in one area of ​​knowledge spurred the development of others.

At this time, interest in science was everywhere, and scientific knowledge was not yet so specialized that any educated person could not make a discovery.

Scientific societies were created, such as the Royal Society of London (established in 1662) and the French Royal Academy of Sciences (1666), and scientific journals were published, which accelerated the development scientific progress. As a result of this "revolution" in the XVI-XVII centuries, science became one of the brightest examples successful cooperation for the benefit of man.

If, until recently, art historians considered the Renaissance as a qualitatively unique type of culture, opposing it, on the one hand, to medieval Gothic, and on the other, to seventeen-century baroque, then A.F. Losev, the author of these lines and a number of other culturologists came to the conclusion that the Renaissance is a transitional type of culture - transitional from feudal her qualities To bourgeois, which explains its main features and puts an end to many unproductive discussions. However, further reflections showed that this transition did not end with the crisis of the Renaissance, but continued in new forms in the 17th and even in the 18th centuries. The real victory of capitalism was marked politically by the Great French Revolution, and spiritually by the self-affirmation of Romanticism and Positivism, the kinship and rivalry of which determined the whole history. European culture nineteenth century and was inherited by the twentieth century. Thus, the features of the culture of the seventeenth century can be understood if we consider its three-stage process in which it is its middle management , exercising « transition in transition » - the transition from the Renaissance harmonious balance of opposing potentials of culture: aristocratic and democratic, mythological and secular, sensual and spiritual, empirical and rational, ethical and aesthetic, traditionalist and innovative, classic and realistic, etc., through their confrontation and confrontation in the 17th century to gain unconditional superiority one of these potentials, the variety of manifestations of which in different areas of culture corresponded to the content of the concept of Enlightenment. Therefore, the main aesthetic "paint" of the 17th century was drama, which sharply distinguished it from the lyrical-epic Renaissance and attracted the attention of cultural figures of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries (starting with the romantics) to the late Shakespeare, Cervantes, Rembrandt, Rubens, Bernini, Callo, to the dramatic baroque in general, and in philosophical heritage of this century - to Hobbes and Pascal.

For Western Europe in the 17th century. - this is the time of the formation of capitalism, the prerequisite for which were the great geographical discoveries of the XV - XVI centuries, the development of the European metropolis of almost all parts of the world. The victory of the English bourgeois revolution of the middle of the 17th century, the first revolution on a “European scale”, led to the establishment of the capitalist mode of production as the politically dominant one in England and Holland, giving the process of the genesis of capitalism an irreversible character. As a result, it is this process that becomes the determining factor in the history of Europe. In the field of economics, this manifested itself in the intensive disintegration of feudal relations in the countryside, in the flourishing of manufacturing production, which created new ways of organizing the labor process, the emergence of hired labor, and in the formation of the European and world capitalist market. Large capitals were often accumulated through the colonial enslavement of new territories of the world. New processes put the countries of Europe in an unequal position: some had colonies, others did not, in some the bourgeois system was established (England, Holland), in others feudal relations became even stronger (Spain, Germany).

In the political sphere, the new era meant the crisis of early absolutism, the onset of a new stage in its evolution, when the policy of absolute monarchy was more and more tightly connected with the narrow interests of the nobility, which meant, in a historical perspective, that it entered a phase of decay and decline. In the field of spiritual life of the XVII century. brought with it a scientific and worldview revolution - the establishment of a rationalistic worldview as an expression of the theoretical consciousness of the rising class - the bourgeoisie, which replaced the traditional, theological worldview.

feature scientific revolution 17th century is a deep study of the ideological and methodological foundations of science, the classical picture of the world. It is noteworthy that it began in mathematics and mechanics, combining two stems of exact knowledge: axiomatic-deductive and experimental (experimental). Experiment, as a tool and method of cognition, fundamentally distinguishes the science of modern times from ancient and medieval forms of theoretical knowledge. From a solitary recluse, which was the nature explorer of the 15th century, the naturalist of the 17th century. becomes already a “legal” figure in society, from a contemplator and observer of occurring phenomena - a tester of nature, forcing it to obey its will.

Compared with the previous century, the range of scientific interests is expanding. In the 16th century, especially great successes were achieved in the fields of philology, astronomy, geography, botany, and medicine. In the 17th century, mathematics became the predominant and leading direction in science, experimental physics developed rapidly, experimental chemistry arose, a new stage in the development of medicine and physiology began, and the foundations of experimental biology were laid. Some humanitarian branches of knowledge, including jurisprudence, in particular, international law, achieve great success.

Works of scientists-researchers of the XVII century. created the basis for technological progress.

Galileo Galilei(1564 - 1642) - Italian scientist, one of the founders of exact natural science, considered experience to be the basis of knowledge. He laid the foundations of modern mechanics: he put forward the idea of ​​the relativity of motion, established the laws of inertia, free fall and the motion of bodies on an inclined plane, and the addition of motions. He was engaged in structural mechanics, built a telescope with a 32-fold increase, defended the heliocentric picture of the world.

Johannes Kepler(1571 - 1630) - German astronomer, one of the founders of modern astronomy. He discovered the laws of planetary motion, compiled planetary tables, laid the foundations for the theory of eclipses, invented a new telescope with binocular lenses.

Isaac Newton(1643 - 1727) - English mathematician, mechanic, astronomer and physicist, creator of classical mechanics. He discovered the dispersion of light, chromatic aberration, developed a theory of light that combined corpuscular and wave representations. He discovered the law of universal gravitation and created the foundations of celestial mechanics.

Gottfried Leibniz(1646 - 1716) - German mathematician, physicist, philosopher, linguist. One of the creators of integral and differential calculus, anticipated the principles of modern mathematical logic.

Christian Huygens(1629 - 1695) - Dutch scientist, invented a pendulum clock with an escapement, established the laws of oscillation of a physical pendulum. Created the wave theory of light. Together with R. Hooke, he established the constant points of the thermometer.

William Harvey(1576 - 1637) - English physician, founder of modern physiology and embryology. Described the large and small circles of blood circulation.

Marcello Malpighi(1628 - 1694) - Italian biologist and physician, one of the founders of microanatomy, discovered capillary circulation.

Anthony Leeuwenhoek(1632 - 1723) - Dutch naturalist, one of the founders of scientific microscopy. He made lenses with 150-300-fold magnification, which made it possible to study microbes, blood cells, etc.

The development of the exact and natural sciences directly served as an impetus for a powerful leap in philosophical thought. Philosophy developed in close connection with the sciences. This led to the creation of comprehensive philosophical systems by Hobbes, Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz, Bacon, the development of a theory of knowledge, where two directions were formed: sensationalism and rationalism. The knowledge accumulated by that time required an answer to the main questions: what is knowledge, how knowledge is formed from ignorance, what path it must take to turn into a theory, and in this direction of search, two systems of answers were formed. Sensualists assigned the main role to sensations, sensory knowledge, although they could not sufficiently illuminate the question of how a scientific theory is formed from sensations and sensory information about the world. Rationalists believed that knowledge arises on the basis of the correct method of reasoning, while one side of knowledge was absolutized and the other was not explained.

An essential feature, still expressing the underdevelopment, one-sidedness of the rationalist mindset and worldview of the era of young capitalism, was the predominantly rational-pragmatic character of rationality itself. The "common sense" of the mass consciousness, with its focus on entrepreneurial success and business initiative, did not only creative, but also destructive work in the sphere of the spirit, nihilistically rejecting moral and aesthetic values ​​if they were not "required" to achieve immediate goals and satisfy immediate interests.

Based on the empirical economic and political reality of class, national and state relations in the 16th-17th centuries. one of the most significant constructions of the social thought of modern times was created: natural law theory. Its essence, at first glance, is simple: the right is determined by the force that determines the sovereignty of both the individual and the state. The position of the state in the world community is similar to the position of a citizen in the state itself: both here and there it is not high morality, not the will of God, but a sober and cold egoistic calculation; both individuals and peoples in their relations with each other must rely only on a healthy, natural sense of self-preservation.

Despite its apparent simplicity, the theory of natural law required, however, a radical revision of the established, traditional philosophical and religious ideas about the essence and nature of man. She forced to abandon the Christian dualism of body and soul, demanded that man be recognized as a "part of nature" (B. Spinoza). Not only pragmatism is obvious, but also the cynicism of the ideology, which does not recognize any arguments in politics and law, except for the argument of force. Philosophical and political thought reflected and conceptualized the real bareness of social relations. The reverse side of their progressive rationalization was a noticeable "flattening" of culture, the loss of volume, multidimensionality, multicolored phenomena of cultural life, which was so characteristic of the Renaissance.

The polarization of classes led to a polarization in culture. Noble ethics, moving away from moral origins folk life, degenerated into etiquette - a complex system of conditional, formal rules and behaviors developed to the details, intended, however, only for communication with persons of their aristocratic circle.

The drama of reality, the collapse of the ideal of the Renaissance led to new forms of perception of the world. The optimistic realism of the Renaissance is replaced by a sense of the unstable position of a person, which is characterized by this or that conflict: the clash of individual rights and public duty, awareness of the inconsistency of being. It is more and more difficult for the individual to find his place in the new relations of society, which needs less and less the all-round man of the Renaissance and more and more the man-function. This tragic collision finds expression in two directions of thought, in two artistic styles - baroque and classicism.

Baroque(from Italian "strange, bizarre" and Portuguese "irregular pearl"). It represents not only an artistic style, but also a special way of relating to the world and with the world. It was formed after a galaxy of destructive wars, embodied the feeling of the fall of the ideals of humanism, as well as a heightened awareness of the social, religious and economic crises experienced by Europe in this era. Baroque was marked by the seal of tragedy and the meaninglessness of life. The optimistic ideal of the Renaissance is replaced by a pessimistic assessment of reality, and enthusiastic admiration for man and his capabilities - by emphasizing his duality, inconsistency, "corruption"; “the discrepancy between the appearance of things and their essence is constantly comprehended, the fragmentation of being is felt, the clash between the bodily and spiritual principles, between attachment to the sensual beauty of the world and awareness of the frailty of earthly existence.”

Baroque works were distinguished by a high level of expressiveness, theatrical combination of the real and the fantastic. Hyperbolism, antitheses, metaphorism, everything unusual, non-traditional was widely used: the aesthetic equality of the sublime and the low, the beautiful and the ugly, the tragic and the comic was respected; an arbitrary fusion of ancient mythology and Christian symbolism. The Baroque style strove for monumentality, mystical allegories and naturalness of the image. Particular attention was paid to the emotional impact. The common themes of the Baroque were the physical and moral suffering of a person, and the favorite characters were exalted martyrs, dying or disappointed heroes. Among the trends and schools of the Baroque, one can single out Mannerism (Italy), Gongorism (Spain), precision literature (France), the metaphysical school (England), and the Silesian school (Germany). Prominent exponents of the Baroque in literature were P. Calderon, G. Grimmelshausen, in sculpture and painting - P. Rubens, D. Velasquez, L. Bernini, in architecture - F. Borromini.

Classicism. The birthplace of classicism (from Latin “exemplary”) was France at the end of the 17th century. Classicism was closely associated with the court aristocratic culture of the period of French absolutism. Absolutism in French politics limited the individual to state interests, forced the individual to be sacrificed to the public. The rationalistic philosophy of R. Descartes, the dramaturgy of P. Corneille, J. B. Molière, and the poetics of N. Boileau became the ideological basis of classicism in France. The ideologists of classicism saw their origins in the images and forms of ancient culture. Plots, characters, ideas of antiquity regained life in the works of classicism, but with a new historical content. The most popular were the traditions of late Roman antiquity and the philosophy of the Roman Stoics, supporters of maintaining firmness of spirit in any situation, subordination to impersonal goals. The ideological basis of classicism included the ideas of patriotism, public service, glorifying a person who prefers public interests to his own. Classicism was characterized by rationalism, the normativity of creativity (the rule of three unities, the hierarchy of genres and styles, etc.), the desire to create complete harmonic forms. For the works of classicism, focused on a realistic recreation of reality, selectivity in plots, forms and means of representation was typical, subject to a strict plan and the main task of the artist - to convince with the power and logic of thought.

Thus, the 17th century is a time that, on the one hand, gradually rationalizes, that is, makes the ideas of the Renaissance quite mundane and social, and on the other hand, prepares the ground for the social and spiritual revolutions of the Enlightenment.

The 17th century is the initial period in the development of the bourgeois mode of production. This is a complex and controversial era in the life of European states: the era of early bourgeois revolutions (the Netherlands - 1566-1609, England - 1640-1688) and the heyday of absolutist monarchies (France, "the age of Louis XIV"); the time of the scientific revolution and the final stage of the Counter-Reformation; the era of grandiose, expressive baroque and dry, rational classicism.

In industrial terms, Europe of the 17th century. - this is the Europe of manufacture and the water wheel - the engine of manufactory production. These are larger and more productive enterprises in comparison with handicraft workshops, based on the division and cooperation of manual labor. Manufactories prevailed in the production of glass, sugar, paper, cloth, silk in the Netherlands and England, and developed in France. Water and wind remained the main sources of energy, but since the beginning of the century, the transition to the use of coal in the production has been gradually carried out. Technical inventions are being improved: in printing and making coins, for example, a screw press began to be used. The mining industry is developing military equipment. The role of mechanisms is growing; the main thing is still the clock mechanism, but improvements have also been made - spring and pendulum clocks have appeared.

Along with manufactory, European life includes stock and commodity exchanges, banks, fairs and markets. The countryside is slowly drawn into market relations (9/10 of the European population was employed in agriculture). The land becomes an object of sale. The wealth of the colonial countries is drawn into European trade. The system of colonial robbery takes on such proportions that it leads to trade wars of the 17th-18th centuries. The social structure of European society is changing. The peasants who have lost their land turn into tenants; artisans - in the workers of manufactories. Part of the nobility is becoming bourgeois. So, in England, as a result of the fencing, new nobles and farmers appear - representatives of the capitalist way of life. The bourgeois class is growing and strengthening its position in the economy and politics. The new capitalist way of life is manifested in the formation of the internal market and the development of world trade, the institutions of entrepreneurship and wage labor, the displacement of the guild system by manufacture, the formation of a new bourgeois grouping of classes.

The political life of Europe in the 17th century is complex and heterogeneous. The tone for political processes is set by the small but very rich Netherlands, where the first bourgeois revolution takes place and a bourgeois republic emerges in the seven northern provinces, the largest of which was Holland. Like all early bourgeois revolutions, this one was limited in purposes, forms and results: it proceeded under religious banners, freed only part of the country from feudal reaction, and took the form of a national liberation war against the Spanish crown. But he first came to power new class- bourgeoisie. This event qualitatively changed European life in the field of international trade and colonial policy: the power and international prestige of Spain, the queen of the 16th century, were undermined. Spain, corrupted by cheap colonial gold, exhausted by the struggle for the "purity of faith", is turning into a minor European state. In Germany, the tragic outcome of the Peasant War for 100 years extended the existence of the feudal order, preserving the personal dependence of the peasants, the political fragmentation of the country.

But in the main, the political fate of Europe depended on the relationship between the two leading powers - England and France. It is difficult to overestimate the role played in the life of European society by the English bourgeois revolution (1640-1688). Revolution of 1688 led to the restoration of the monarchy, but it was already a limited monarchy with a strong parliament that passes laws that contribute to the development of the capitalist way of life. Principles proclaimed by the English Revolution political structure and economic order had an impact on all European countries. England has become an advanced industrial and mighty colonial power.

The period of the English Revolution coincided in France with the rise of absolute monarchy. This was the age of Louis XIV (1643-1715), Louis the Great, the Sun King, as his contemporaries flatteringly called him. The Versailles Court thundered - the standard of luxury and taste throughout Europe. Balls of unheard-of splendor were given here. France replaces Spain as a trendsetter and etiquette. Although absolutism as a form of government is established in most European states, the classic model of the absolutist state for two centuries was France. "One monarch, one law, one religion" - in accordance with this principle, the French kings exercised unlimited rule. All economic, political and public life in the state were under the control of the monarch, and this situation suited all classes. The nobility could no longer do without a benefactor monarch; need drove the impoverished aristocrats under the royal banners. The court, the treasury and the army guaranteed the protection of privileges, nourished hopes for a career. The emerging bourgeoisie of France also could not do without the sovereign, who embodied the age-old struggle for the unity of the country, for the suppression of separatism. The royal government often pursued a protectionist policy towards the manufacture. So the product of the decomposition of feudalism - absolutism - to a certain extent contributed to the development of capitalist relations. A strong absolutist state, with clear national boundaries that restrained internecine wars, guaranteed a peaceful life and protection of the king to all segments of the population.

Absolutism also played a positive role in overcoming religious wars in Western Europe in the 16th and 18th centuries. (The Thirty Years' War, which delayed the development of Germany, the wars of the Calvinist-Huguenots and Catholics in France in the late 16th-early 17th centuries, with the massacre of Bartholomew's Night; constant clashes between Puritans and supporters of the "high" church in English history of the 17th century). Absolutism sought to rely on the church, to strengthen religious foundations: the church proclaimed that the monarch is God's anointed, and his dominance on earth is like heavenly autocracy.

But still the role of religion in the worldview is falling. Religious wars, the split of Western Christianity as a result of the Reformation, the persecution of dissidents testified to the inability of the church to ensure public peace. The organic involvement of the Christian Church in socio-political feudal structures with their ideological and semantic center "God - the Pope - the King" undermined its authority in the era of the overthrow of the old order. Finally, the progress of science, of experimental knowledge gradually convinced of the truth of the scientific picture of the universe.

The development of the bourgeois mode of production gave rise to the need for applied sciences. Since the Renaissance, the role of natural sciences in culture has been growing. The leading place in natural science was taken by mechanics. Science ceased to be the office occupation of lone scientists. New forms of organization emerged research work- scientific societies, academies of sciences. In 1635, the French Academy was established, and in 1660, the Royal Society of London. The scientific revolution was based on a fundamentally new assessment of the possibilities of the human mind and the sources of knowledge. Even before René Descartes (1596-1650) in his Discourse on Method declared the human mind to be the main tool for the knowledge of the world, Francis Bacon (1561-1626) proclaimed that knowledge is power, its source is experience, and not divine revelation, and the measure of value is the practical benefit brought. Experiment (Galileo, Bacon, Newton), mechanical hypothesis, mechanical model (Descartes) were declared the most important methods of scientific knowledge.

Antonio van Leeuwenhoek's microscope made it possible to study the structure of living organisms down to the smallest physiological processes. And the telescope enabled Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) and Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) to develop the heliocentric doctrine of Nicolaus Copernicus, to discover the laws of planetary motion. Using a telescope designed by him with a 30-fold increase, Galileo discovered volcanoes and craters on the Moon, and saw the satellites of Jupiter. Milky Way appeared before him as an innumerable cluster of stars, confirming the idea of ​​Giordano Bruno about the inexhaustibility of the worlds in the Universe. All this brought Galileo the well-deserved fame of the “Columbus of the sky” and turned the biblical picture of the universe upside down.

The development of terrestrial mechanics (Galileo, Torricelli, Boyle, Descartes, Pascal, Leibniz) showed the failure of the medieval understanding of nature, based on the physics of Aristotle. In the works of Isaac Newton (1643-1727), mathematical natural science reached its peak. Newton's discoveries in the field of optics (light dispersion) made it possible to design a more powerful reflecting telescope. Newton (simultaneously with Leibniz and independently of him) discovers differential and integral calculus. He also formulates a number of the most important laws in physics. Newton's predecessor Rene Descartes is one of the creators of mechanics, algebra and analytical geometry. He combined the genius of a naturalist and a philosopher. Fascinated by physiology, he was able to understand and appreciate the importance of blood circulation. Having deeply studied the laws of optics, he discovered the refraction of light. Blaise Pascal (1623-1662), based on the assumptions of Torricelli, firmly proved the existence of atmospheric pressure. In the works of Pascal, Fermat and Huygens, the theory of probability was developed. William Harvey (1578-1657) discovered the secret of blood circulation and the role of the heart, came close to revealing the secret of the origin of human life.

In the 17th century a huge number of discoveries and inventions were made, and this allows us to talk about the scientific revolution of the "age of geniuses", as the 17th century is sometimes called. But the main result of the scientific revolution was the creation of a new image of the universe. The geocentric cosmos collapsed, and the Earth took its true place in the picture of the universe. The world appeared as the result of the evolution of matter, controlled by mechanical laws, and not by divine providence, it ceased to be a physical emanation of God's spiritual providence.

But the scientific worldview in the XVII century. has not yet broken the ties that bind it to more ancient - esoteric and religious - ideas. The leaders of the scientific revolution were deeply religious people. Faith was the source of their creative inspiration. The laws of nature discovered by natural scientists were presented as a new acquisition of divine knowledge lost at the time of the fall. The mechanical models of the world created by scientists found a logical addition in the notions of an impersonal creator who laid the foundation for the world, gave it a finished form and harmony, and then disappeared from it. Both Descartes and Newton built their systems of the universe based on the divine principle. Newton believed that matter cannot be explained from itself, that "the most elegant combination of the Sun, Planets and comets could not have happened otherwise than by the intention and power of a powerful and wise being." The greatest harmony, coherence and beauty of the universe, - believed Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, - is a consequence of the miracle that happened during the creation of things, "it is an unceasing miracle in the same measure as many natural things." Benedict Spinoza speaks of God as the fundamental principle of being, the primary cause of all things, and also the primary cause of himself.

But despite the "assumptions" of divine intervention, the image of the Copernican-Newtonian universe was simple and easy to understand in comparison with the cumbersome Ptolemaic system.

They tried to apply the principles of knowledge of nature to the sphere of public life. This is exactly how Newton's teaching was understood by D. Locke and the French Enlightenment: the outdated structures of feudalism with their class, church hierarchies must give way to the rationality of a mutually beneficial social structure and the recognition of individual rights. This is how the natural-legal theories of modern times appeared, which soon turned into a weapon in the fight against feudal estate privileges. The founders of the theories of natural law were Hugo Grotius (1583-1645), Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), John Locke (1632-1704), who made the transition to the position of human behavior and vital interest and marked the beginning of utilitarianism and pragmatism. The abstract mind of the rationalists was transformed into the common sense of the bourgeois.

The starting point of Hobbes' natural law theory is the concept of human nature. The nature of man is evil and selfish: "Man is a wolf to man." The state of nature - the initial stage of human history - is characterized by a "war of all against all", in which a person is guided by "natural law" - the law of force. Natural law is opposed by "natural laws" - the rational and moral principles of human nature. Among them are the law of self-preservation and the law of satisfaction of needs. Since the “war of all against all” threatens a person with self-destruction, it becomes necessary to change the “state of nature” to a civil one, which people do by concluding a social contract, voluntarily ceding to the state part of their rights and freedoms and agreeing to comply with laws. The natural law of force is replaced by the harmony of natural and civil laws, which takes on real life in the state. Hobbes considers the state as the work of human hands, the most important of the artificial bodies he creates. The state is a necessary condition for culture, outside of it there is war, fear, abomination, barbarism, poverty, ignorance. In the state - peace, security, wealth, the dominion of reason, decency, knowledge. The practical basis for such ideas was the endless wars between the feudal estates and the devastation, fear for their lives and for the lives of their loved ones, which these wars carried with them. 17th century imbued with a sense of tragic loneliness in the world of man - a toy in the hands of fate. From these feelings and moods grew the idea of ​​the need for a strong state capable of protecting its citizens.

Locke believed that the truth of social life lies not in the state, but in the individual himself. People unite in society in order to guarantee the individual his natural rights. Locke considered the main natural rights not the right of force, but the right to life, liberty and property. The state, through its laws, protects the natural rights, the free private life of every person. The rights of the individual are best secured by the principle of separation of powers. The philosopher considered it necessary to consolidate legislature for the parliament, federal (relations with other states) - for the king and ministers, and the executive - for the court and the army.

The theory of natural law had an anti-theological and anti-feudal orientation. Emphasizing the "naturalness" of the origin of law, she opposed the theory of "divine" law, which turned God into the source of the laws of the feudal-absolutist state. Insisting on the inalienability of the most important "natural rights" of the individual, this theory also opposed the practice of their constant violation in feudal society, being an instrument of its criticism.

17th century rich in utopias, in which criticism of the foundations of feudal absolutism is combined with the development of projects for a perfect society. Thus, Cyrano de Bergerac, an admirer of the philosophy of Descartes, developed the ideas of progress in his fantasy novels. Heaping ridicule on contemporary society, he enriched the traditions of Rabelais's humanism. Set out in the form of travel novels, the utopian programs of the Italian Campanella (“City of the Sun”) and the French author Denis Veras (“History of the Sevarambs”) oriented the public consciousness towards the search for a harmonious social order. Utopians discovered it on distant islands, other planets, or attributed it to the distant future, not seeing the possibilities to change the state of things in their contemporary world.

Francis Bacon's New Atlantis differs from these utopias in its techno- and sci-tech orientation, which absorbed the spirit of the times of the scientific revolution. The wise men who sit in the "House of Solomon" - scientists, high priests, politicians - know very well that "knowledge is power." Scientific and technical achievements are regarded as the main wealth of the nation, their secrets are carefully guarded. The Bensalemians can desalinate and condition the air, regulate the weather and simulate human behavior, produce synthetic food, and know the secret of eternal life. Similar ideas in Europe in the 17th century. hovered in the air (for example, the dream of a collective organization of the activities of scientists, which soon came true in the activities of the Royal Society of London, the Paris Academy, etc.) In part, these fantasies can also be regarded as a kind of mind game: in the culture of this game component. As I. Huizinga notes, the 17th century is fascinated by the play of baroque forms.

Culture XVII V. created the necessary prerequisites for the cultures of subsequent eras. The 17th century is the beginning of the formation of bourgeois society, the development of a new bourgeois worldview, the foundation of which was Newtonian-Cartesian cosmology. The earth ceased to be the center of the universe and became one of the planets moving around the sun, which in turn became just one of a great many stars. The Universe acquired the appearance of a complex system consisting of material particles, subject to mechanical laws. Public life has also become an integral part of this system; the spread of Newtonian-Cartesian conclusions to it gave rise to the natural-legal theories of the new time. The role of God in this world view was still essential: since the world is like a giant clockwork, it must have its Master. The Creator, who created the world and then retired from it, appeared in the images of the Divine Architect, Mathematician and Clockmaker.

The power of man lies in the fact that by the power of his Mind he can penetrate into the heart of the universal order and then turn the received knowledge to his own benefit. Realizing himself as a cognizing subject and creator of culture, a person masters the role of the ruler of the world. Reason became the slogan of the new world (just as God was the slogan of the old world). Rationalism has become the dominant culture; science - the main tool of the Mind - acquired a worldview status, knowledge - a social orientation.