Art Nouveau in Russian architecture of the Silver Age. Russian architecture of the Silver Age

In their romantic impulse, modern architects often turned to their national past for inspiration and forms, drawing from there not so much specific architectural forms and details, as was the case in historicism, but trying to reproduce the spirit of folk or ancient architecture, creating vivid architectural images. Characteristic examples of this approach are the building of the Tretyakov Gallery, designed by the artist V. Vasnetsov, and Pertsov's tenement house, built by the artist S. Malyutin.

Setting themselves the task of aesthetic harmonization of society, the architects in their search touched, of course, not only individual construction, but also the construction of industrial buildings (Levinson F. Shekhtel's Printing House in Moscow), railway stations, public and commercial institutions, religious buildings.

Art Nouveau monuments are all quite easily recognizable. Its external stylistic features are so characteristic that even a non-professional can easily recognize them. This is, first of all, a lively, dynamic mass, free, mobile space and an amazing bizarre, whimsical ornament, the main theme of which is the line.

Reasons for the defeat of the revolution.

The State Duma

In April 1906 The "Basic State Laws" were published, which became the prototype of the constitution and secured the fundamental rights and laws.

In I State. Duma (April-July 1906), the elections to which the Social Democrats and Socialist-Revolutionaries boycotted, the leading role belonged to the Cadets - the most big party. The second place was occupied by the labor group, a faction that arose in the Duma, expressing the views of the left, primarily the Socialist-Revolutionaries and the VK. C. The main question in the First Duma was the agrarian question. The projects proposed by the Cadets and the Trudoviks involved the compulsory expropriation of the landlords' land.

In II State. Duma (February-June 1907) neo-populists and social democrats received 43% of the seats, the Cadets, Octobrists and other liberals - 45%. June 3, 1907 The Duma was dissolved by the emperor. This was not against the law, but the issuance of the Decree to Amend the Electoral Law of June 3 violated the Fundamental Laws, as passed without the consent of Parliament. The revolution is over. The new, III Duma, elected in 1907, was obedient to the authorities and worked for a full term.

The defeat of the revolution was caused by a number of reasons. The main ones are:

1. The unity of action of all democratic forces in the struggle against the autocracy was not ensured.

2. The working people of the national regions of the country did not speak out unanimously enough against the autocracy.

3. The army basically remained in the hands of the government and was used to stifle the revolution, although quite large uprisings took place in individual military units.

4. The workers and peasants did not work together enough. In different areas, they did not rise to fight at the same time.

5. The victory of tsarism was facilitated by the European states, which provided the Russian government with great financial assistance, giving a large cash loan used to suppress the revolution.

Late XIX - early XX century. represents a turning point not only

in the socio-political, but also the spiritual life of Russia. great upheaval,

experienced by the country in a relatively small historical period, Not

might not affect her cultural development. An important feature of this period

is to strengthen the process of Russia's integration into the European and world

culture.

1) Liter The realistic trend in Russian literature at the turn of the 20th century was continued by L.N. Tolstoy ("Resurrection", 1880-99; "Hadji Murad", 1896-1904, A.P. Chekhov (1860-1904), who created his best works, the theme of which was the ideological search of the intelligentsia and the "little" man with his everyday worries (“Ward No. 6”, 1892; “House with a mezzanine”, 1896; and young writers I.A. Bunin (Village, 1910; “Mr. from San Francisco”, 1915) and A.I.

Kuprin (1880-1960; Molokh, 1896; Olesya, 1898; Pit, 1909-15). At the same time, new artistic qualities appeared in realism (an indirect reflection of reality). This is connected with the spread of neo-romanticism. Already the first neo-romantic works of the 90s (“Makar Chudra”, “Chelkash”, etc.) brought fame to the young A.M. Gorky (1868-1936). The best realistic writings of the writer reflected big picture Russian life at the turn of the 20th century. with its inherent originality of economic development and ideological and social struggle (the novel Foma Gordeev, 1899; the plays The Petty Bourgeois, 1901; At the Bottom, 1902, etc.). At the end of the 19th century, when, in an atmosphere of political reaction and the crisis of populism, part of the intelligentsia was seized by moods of social and moral decline, decadence became widespread in artistic culture ([from late Latin decadencia - decline] a phenomenon in culture XIX-XX centuries, marked by the rejection of citizenship, immersion in the sphere of individual experiences. The aesthetic concept is characterized by the cult of beauty), many of whose motifs have become the property of a number of artistic movements of modernism that arose on the ruble. 20th century Russian literature of the early 20th century, without creating big romance, gave rise to remarkable poetry, the most significant direction in which was symbolism. V.S. had a huge influence on the Symbolists. Solovyov. It is customary to distinguish between "senior" and "junior" symbolists. The "elder" (V. Bryusov, K. Balmont, F. Sologub, D. Merezhkovsky, Z. Gippius), who came to literature in the 90s, a period of deep crisis in poetry, preached the cult of beauty and free self-expression of the poet. The “younger” symbolists (A. Blok, A. Bely, Vyach. Ivanov, S. Solovyov) brought philosophical and theosophical quests to the fore. The Symbolists offered the reader a colorful myth about a world created according to the laws of eternal Beauty. By 1910, "symbolism had completed its circle of development" (N. Gumilyov), it was replaced by acmeism. Members of the Acmeist group (N. Gumilyov, S. Gorodetsky, A. Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam, V. Narbut, M. Kuzmin) declared the liberation of poetry from symbolist calls to the “ideal”, the return of clarity, materiality and “joyful admiration of being” (N. Gumilyov). Acmeism is characterized by a rejection of moral and spiritual quests, a penchant for aestheticism. At the same time, another modernist trend arose - futurism, which broke up into several groups: the "Association of Egofuturists" (I. Severyanin and others); Mezzanine of Poetry (V. Lavrenev, R. Ivlev and others), Centrifuge (N. Aseev, B. Pasternak and others), Gileya, whose participants are D. Burliuk, V. Mayakovsky, V. Khlebnikov and others called themselves Cubo-Futurists, Budtlyans, i.e. people from the future. A special place in the literature of the turn of the century was occupied by peasant poets (N. Klyuev, P. Oreshin).

2) Theater and music. The most important social event cultural life Russia at the end of the 19th century. was the opening of an art theater in Moscow (1898), founded by K. S. Stanislavsky (1863-1938) and V.I. Nemirovich-Danchenko (1858-1943). In 1904, the theater of V.F. Komissarzhevskaya (1864-1910), whose repertoire (plays by Gorky, Chekhov, etc.) reflected the aspirations of the democratic intelligentsia. Vakhtangov, a student of Stanislavsky, created the 3rd studio of the Moscow Art Theater, which later became the theater named after him (1926). One of the reformers of the Russian theater, the founder of the Moscow Chamber Theater (1914) A.Ya. Tairov (1885-1950) strove to create a "synthetic theater" with a predominantly romantic and tragic repertoire, to form actors of virtuoso skill.

Development of the best traditions musical theater associated with the St. Petersburg Mariinsky and Moscow Bolshoi theaters, as well as with the private opera of S. I. Mamontov and S. I. Zimin in Moscow. The most prominent representatives of the Russian vocal school, world-class singers were F.I. Chaliapin (1873-1938), L.V. Sobinov (1872-1934), N.V. Nezhdanov (1873-1950). Ballet theater reformers were choreographer M.M. Fokin (1880-1942) and ballerina A.P. Pavlova (1881-1931). Russian art has received worldwide recognition. Outstanding composer N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov continued to work in his favorite genre of fairy-tale opera (Sadko, 1896; The Tale of Tsar Saltan, 1900; The Tale of the Invisible City of Kitezh, 1904; The Golden Cockerel, 1907). The highest example of realistic drama was his opera " royal bride". In the work of composers younger generation at the turn of the 20th century. there was a departure from social issues, increased interest in philosophical and ethical problems. This found its fullest expression in the work of the brilliant pianist and conductor, the outstanding composer S. V. Rachmaninoff.

3)architecture. Buildings of a new type (banks, shops, factories, railway stations) occupied an increasing place in the urban landscape. The emergence of new building materials (reinforced concrete, metal structures) and the improvement of construction equipment made it possible to use constructive and artistic techniques, the aesthetic understanding of which led to the approval of the Art Nouveau style. The features of Art Nouveau were most fully manifested in the architecture of the Ryabushinsky mansion at the Nikitsky Gate (1900-02), where the architect, abandoning traditional schemes, applied an asymmetric planning principle. Shekhtel used such typical Art Nouveau techniques as colored stained-glass windows and a mosaic frieze encircling the entire building with floral ornaments. With the growth of rationalist tendencies in a number of Shekhtel's buildings, features of constructivism were outlined - a style that would take shape in the 1920s. Trading house The Moscow Merchant Society in Maly Cherkassky Lane (1909) and the building of the printing house "Morning of Russia" (1907) can be called pre-constructivist.

4) Painting. At the turn of the century, there was an assertion of priority art forms reflecting reality only indirectly. Artists were attracted by the theme of the split of the peasant community (S.A. Korovin, "On the World", 1893, State Tretyakov Gallery), the prose of stupefying labor (A.E. Arkhipov, "Washerwomen", 1901, State Tretyakov Gallery) and the revolutionary events of 1905 (S. V. Ivanov, "Shooting", 1905, State Music.

rev., Moscow). The historical genre appears. In the historical canvases of A. V. Vasnetsov we find the development of the landscape principle (“Street in Kitay-Gorod. Beginning of the 17th century”, 1900, Russian Museum). Creativity M.V. Nesterov (1862-1942) represented a variant of a retrospective landscape, through which the high spirituality of the characters was conveyed (“Vision to the youth Bartholomew”, 1889-90, State Tretyakov Gallery, “Great tonsure”, 1898, Russian Museum). Savrasov’s student I.I. Levitan approached impressionism (“Birch Grove”, 1885-89) and was the creator of a “conceptual landscape” or “mood landscape”, which has a rich range of experiences: from joyful elation (“March”, 1895, State Tretyakov Gallery; “Lake”, 1900 , timing) up to philosophical reflections about the frailty of everything earthly (“Over Eternal Peace”, 1894, State Tretyakov Gallery). K.A. Korovin (1861-1939) is the brightest representative of Russian impressionism, the first among Russian artists to consciously rely on the French impressionists. One after another, two masters of pictorial symbolism entered Russian culture, creating a sublime world in their works - M. Vrubel and V. Borisov-Musatov. V.E. Borisov-Musatov created in his canvases a beautiful and sublime world, built according to the laws of beauty and so unlike the surrounding one. The art of Borisov-Musatov is imbued with sad reflection and quiet sorrow with the feelings that many people of that time experienced. Creativity N.K. Roerich (1874-1947) turned to pagan Slavic and Scandinavian antiquity (“Messenger”, 1897, State Tretyakov Gallery; “Overseas Guests”, 1901, Russian Museum; “Nikola”, 1916, KMRI). The basis of his painting has always been a landscape. Artists of the Jack of Diamonds association (1910-1916), turning to the aesthetics of post-impressionism, fauvism and cubism, as well as to the techniques of Russian lubok and folk toys, solved the problems of revealing the materiality of nature, building a form with color. Still life came to the fore. Since the mid-10s, an important component fine style"Jack of Diamonds" was futurism, one of the techniques of which was the "assembly" of objects or their parts taken from different points and in different time The first experiments of Russian artists in abstract art date back to the 10s, one of the first manifestos of which was Larionov's book Luchism (1913), and V.

V. Kandinsky (1866-1944) and K.S. Malevich.

32. Stolypin's reforms: nature, content, results.

1) Stolypin was prime minister from 1906-1911, acted as a conductor of the government's policy, which was trying to rise above the class struggle.

He was first a landowner, then the marshal of the nobility of Kovno, then the governor of the Saratov region, Stolpyin organized the suppression of peasant uprisings. He perfectly understood the need for profound transformations that could preserve and strengthen the state system.

The main goal of the reform was to turn the inhabitants of the Russian village into a strong, property-infused, wealthy peasantry, which, according to Stolypin, serves as the best bulwark of order and tranquility. It was planned to liquidate the land community, its economic land distribution mechanism.

The ultimate economic goal of the reforms should be the general rise of the country's agriculture, the transformation of the agricultural sector into the economic base of the new Russia.

The change in the form of ownership of peasant land, the transformation of peasants into full-fledged owners of their allotments, was envisaged by the law of 1910. by fixing allotments in private ownership. In addition, according to the law of 1911. it was allowed to carry out land management (reduction of land into farms and cuts), after which the peasants also became landowners. But there were also restrictions, a peasant could only sell land to a peasant.

To solve the problem of land shortage and reduce agrarian overpopulation in the central regions, a resettlement policy is being implemented. The state allocated funds for those wishing to move to new places, mainly the Trans-Urals and Siberia. Special wagons were built for the settlers. Beyond the Urals, peasants were given lands free of charge, for raising the economy and landscaping, a loan was issued.

The agrarian reform was a great economic success.

S-x experienced serious progress. Harvest years and the growth of world grain prices played a big role in this. Especially farm and bran farms progressed. The yield in them exceeded the total fields by 30-50%

The marketability of peasant farming has increased significantly, also mainly due to farms and cuts. New farming systems and agricultural crops were introduced. Sole proprietors participated in credit partnerships, which gave them funds for modernization.

The community as a self-governing body of the Russian village was not affected, but the socio-economic organism of the community began to collapse. This process was especially fast in the northwestern, southern and southeastern regions, where the community was historically weaker. The reform contributed to the formation of peasant private land ownership. As a result, by 1913 Russia became one of the largest exporters of agricultural products in the world.

Shortly after the Japanese war, the tension between England and Russia eased, for England no longer expected aggression. actions from Russia; on the contrary, Germany with her strong army, with her strong navy and with her quick economy. development becomes military, watered. and economy. England's rival on the other hand, Russia was dissatisfied with the policy of Austrian expansion (in 1889 Triple Alliance= Germany + Austria-Hungary + Italy) in the Balkans, in which Germany supported its ally, although Emperor Nicholas sought to maintain good neighborly relations with Germany. In 1893, an alliance was concluded between Russia and France, and in 1907 an agreement between Russia and England ( Entente), which regulated the relative-I of the two countries with Afghanistan and Iran, the markets for the cat. were the subject of mutual claims. So there were two blocs of powers, participating. in the first world war. During the course of the war itself, their composition changed somewhat. Italy joined the Entente bloc, while Bulgaria and Turkey joined the bloc of Germany and Austria-Hungary.

Reasons: deepening international contradictions; intensification of the struggle for the redivision of the world and markets; 38 countries participated, on the part of all participants, with the exception of Serbia, it was predatory and unfair.

Russia sought to strengthen its position in the Balkans, the Middle East, expand its western borders through the territory of Poland, seize the Bosphorus and Dardanelles and annex Constantinople.

The reason for the war was the assassination on June 15, 1914 in Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia, of the heir to the Austrian throne Franz Ferdinand during his stay on the maneuvers of the Austrian army. Bosnia and Herzegovina were captured by Austria-Hungary back in 1908. At the same time, with her assistance, there was an image. the state of Albania, cutting off Serbia from the Adriatic Sea. Appointment of maneuvers for June 15, National Day. Serb mourning was a provocation by Austria-Hungary. Using the situation that Serbia did not accept one of the points of the Austrian ultimatum, Austria-Hungary declared war on it. In response to the mobilization of the Russian army on July 19, 1914, Germany declared war on it.

From the very first days of the war, two fronts were formed in Europe: the Western (in Belgium and France) and the Eastern (against Russia). Already the beginning of the war showed the shortcomings of Russia's preparation for conducting military operations, the dependence of the actions of the Russian army on half-I on Western front. This led towards the end of 1914 to the loss of the previously captured initiative in Vost. Prussia and Galicia.

In the spring of 1915, the Austro-Hungarian army, Spanish. overwhelming advantage in artillery, drove the Russian troops out of Galicia and part of Volhynia. In turn, the Germans occupied Poland, Lithuania and part of Latvia - Courland. The defeat of the Russian army in 1915 was called the Great Retreat. A mass evacuation of the population and property from the western provinces began. This exacerbated transport and food problems. They escalated into a crisis that the government could never resolve. Queues arose in cities for food. The uncontrolled issuance of paper money gave rise to inflation. All this, together with the influx of refugees into large cities, caused mass discontent among the people. Workers started protesting against the war.

1916 was successful for Russia. The armament and supply of the army was established. In May 1916, the famous Brusilovsky breakthrough began - the offensive of the Southwestern Front under the command of General A.A. Brusilov, as a result of which the Austrian front was broken through, and the enemy troops d.b. retreat 70-120 km, losing 1.5 million people killed, wounded and captured. This put Austria-Hungary on the brink of watered. and military disaster. To help her, Germany d.b. to transfer 11 divisions from France, which helped the Allies to win the battle of Verdun and launch an offensive on the Somme. As a token of gratitude, the allies agreed, in case of victory, to transfer Constantinople (Istanbul) and the Black Sea straits to Russia.

But the losses of the Russian army were enormous (about 7.5 million people were killed, wounded and taken prisoner). The army has lost its personnel. Most of the newcomers to the troops were in the barracks due to lack of. military training, the lack of officers for their training and the lack of weapons. From these "western regiments", among the cat. there were also guards units, located. Petersburg, the expansion of the army began. They had a revolution. agitators who directed the discontent of these peasants cut off from the land against the tsar and the "rich" landowners and capitalists. In the front-line units, fraternization with enemy soldiers and desertion began. The authority of the officers fell. The influence of the revolution increased. agitators. This allowed from the very beginning the revolution. events the forces of the revolution the support of the army.

With the victory of the October Revolution, the Soviet government turned to all the belligerent powers with a proposal to conclude peace without annexation and indemnity, cat. was rejected by the Entente and the United States. Under these conditions, the Soviet state was forced to conclude a difficult Peace of Brest 1918. According to the conv. During the Brest Peace, a territory with a total area of ​​780 thousand km 2 with a population of 56 million people (almost 1/3 of the population of the empire) was torn away from Russia. These are Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Finland, part of Belarus, Ukraine, some. regions of the Caucasus.

1917 February Revolution did not lead to Russia's withdrawal from the war, the Provisional Government declared loyalty to the allied duty. Two military operations (June - in Galicia, July - in Belarus) ended in failure. German troops captured the city of Riga and the Moonzuad archipelago in the Baltic. The Russian army by this time was completely demoralized. The whole country demanded an immediate end to the war. Soviet Russia withdrew from the First World War by signing in March 1918 the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany and its allies.

fighting on the Western Front ended after the Armistice of Compiègne in November 1918. Germany and its allies were defeated. The final results of the war were summed up by the Treaty of Versailles in 1918. Soviet Russia did not take part in its signing.

On the Zap. front, where in May 1918 began action. Amer. troops, hostilities ended in the complete defeat of Germany and its allies. On November 11, Germany capitulated. The final terms of the peace treaties with Germany and her allies were worked out on Paris Peace Conference 1919-1920(Sov. Russia was not invited).

Like architecture, sculpture at the turn of the century was freed from eclecticism. The renewal of the artistic and figurative system is associated with the influence of impressionism. The features of the new method are “looseness”, unevenness of texture, dynamism of forms, permeated with air and light. Sculpture at the beginning of the 20th century developed under the strong influence of Impressionism, which forced the masters to turn to the search for new plastic volumes, pay great attention to the dynamics of images. The path of development of Russian sculpture late XIX- the beginning of the 20th century were largely determined by its connections with the art of the Wanderers. This explains its democracy and content. Sculptors actively participated in the search for a new, modern hero. Materials became more diverse: not only marble and bronze were used, as before, but also stone, wood, majolica, even clay. Attempts were made to introduce color into the sculpture. At that time, a brilliant galaxy of sculptors worked - P.P. Trubetskoy, A.S. Golubkina, S.T. Konenkov, A.T. Matveev. The very first consistent representative of this direction P.P. Trubetskoy, abandons the impressionistic modeling of the surface, and enhances the overall impression of oppressive brute force. He created 50 sculptural works: "Moscow Coachman" (1898), "Princess M.K. Tenishev” (1899), “I.I. Levitan" (1899), "F.I. Chaliapin" (1899-1890), "S.Yu. Witte "(1901) and other picturesque statuettes ("Lev Tolstoy on a horse", 1900), an equestrian monument Alexander III in St. Petersburg (opened in 1909). In 1906 he went to Paris, in 1914 - to the USA. During this period, he performed busts and sculptures of prominent figures of European and American culture of that time. The original interpretation of impressionism is inherent in the work of A.S. Golubkina, who reworked the principle of depicting phenomena in motion into the idea of ​​awakening the human spirit. The female images created by the sculptor are marked by a sense of compassion for people who are tired, but not broken by life's trials.

The art of Anna Semyonovna Golubkina (1864-1927) bears the stamp of her time. It is emphatically soulful and always deeply and consistently democratic. Golubkina is a convinced revolutionary. Her sculptures "Slave" (1905), "Walking" (1903), a portrait of Karl Marx (1905) are a natural response to the advanced ideas of our time. Golubkina is a great master of psychological sculptural portraiture. And here she remained true to herself, with the same creative upsurge, working on portraits of both the Great Writer ("Leo Tolstoy", 1927), and a simple woman ("Marya", 1905.). The sculptural work of Sergei Timofeevich Konenkov (1874-1971) was distinguished by a special richness and variety of stylistic and genre forms. His work "Samson Breaking the Bonds" (1902) was inspired by the titanic images of Michelangelo. "The militant worker of 1905 Ivan Churkin" (1906) is the personification of an invincible will, tempered in the fire of class battles. After a trip to Greece in 1912, like V. Serov, he became interested in ancient archaism. Images of pagan ancient Greek mythology were intertwined with images of ancient Slavic mythology. Abramtsevo's ideas of folklore were also embodied in such works as Velikosil, Stribog, Old Man, and others. The Beggar Brotherhood (1917) was perceived as Russia fading into the past. The carved wooden figures of two poor miserable wanderers, hunched, gnarled, wrapped in rags, are both realistic and fantastic. The traditions of classical sculpture were revived by Ivan Timofeevich Matveev (1878-1960), a student of Trubetskoy at the Moscow School. He developed a minimum of basic plastic themes in the motives of a nude figure. The plastic principles of Matveev's sculpture are most fully revealed in the images of young men and boys ("Seated Boy", 1909, "Sleeping Boys", 1907, "Young Man", 1911, and a number of statues intended for one of the park ensembles in the Crimea). Antique light curves of the figures of boys in Matveev are combined with the specific accuracy of postures and movements, reminiscent of the paintings of Borisov-Musatov. Matveev in his works embodied the modern thirst for harmony in modern art forms. On the whole, the Russian sculptural school was little affected by avant-garde tendencies, and did not develop such a complex range of innovative aspirations, characteristic of painting.

A new stage in the development of Russian culture is conditionally, starting from the reform of 1861 to the October Revolution of 1917, called the "Silver Age". For the first time this name was proposed by the philosopher N. Berdyaev, who saw in the highest achievements of the culture of his contemporaries a reflection of the Russian glory of the previous "golden" eras, but this phrase finally entered the literary circulation in the 60s of the last century.

« silver Age”occupies a very special place in Russian culture. This contradictory time of spiritual searches and wanderings significantly enriched all kinds of arts and philosophy and gave rise to a whole galaxy of outstanding creative personalities. On the threshold of a new century, the deep foundations of life began to change, giving rise to the collapse of the old picture of the world. The traditional regulators of existence - religion, morality, law - could not cope with their functions, and the age of modernity was born.

However, sometimes they say that the "Silver Age" is a Western phenomenon. Indeed, he chose as his guidelines the aestheticism of Oscar Wilde, the individualistic spiritualism of Alfred de Vigny, the pessimism of Schopenhauer, Nietzsche's superman. The "Silver Age" found its ancestors and allies in the most different countries Europe and in different centuries: Villon, Mallarmé, Rimbaud, Novalis, Shelley, Calderon, Ibsen, Maeterlinck, d'Annuzio, Gauthier, Baudelaire, Verhaarn.

In other words, at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries there was a reassessment of values ​​from the standpoint of Europeanism. But in the light of the new era, which was the exact opposite of the one that it replaced, the national, literary and folklore treasures appeared in a different, brighter than ever light. Truly, it was the most creative era in Russian history, a canvas of greatness and impending troubles of holy Russia.

Slavophiles and Westernizers

The liquidation of serfdom and the development of bourgeois relations in the countryside exacerbated the contradictions in the development of culture. They are found, first of all, in the discussion that has engulfed Russian society and in the formation of two trends: "Western" and "Slavophile". The stumbling block, which did not allow the disputants to reconcile, was the question: in what way is the culture of Russia developing? According to the "Western", that is, bourgeois, or it retains its "Slavic identity", that is, it preserves feudal relations and the agrarian character of culture.

The “Philosophical Letters” by P. Ya. Chaadaev served as the reason for highlighting the directions. He believed that all the troubles of Russia were derived from the qualities of the Russian people, which, allegedly, are characterized by: mental and spiritual backwardness, underdevelopment of ideas about duty, justice, law, order, and the absence of an original “idea”. As the philosopher believed, "the history of Russia is a" negative lesson "to the world." A. S. Pushkin gave him a sharp rebuke, saying: “I would not want to change the Fatherland for anything in the world or have a different history than the history of our ancestors, such as God gave it to us.”

Russian society was divided into "Slavophiles" and "Westerners". The “Westerners” included V. G. Belinsky, A. I. Herzen, N. V. Stankevich, M. A. Bakunin, and others. The “Slavophiles” were represented by A. S. Khomyakov, K. S. Samarin.

The "Westerners" were characterized by a certain set of ideas, which they defended in disputes. This ideological complex included: the denial of the identity of the culture of any people; criticism of the cultural backwardness of Russia; admiration for the culture of the West, its idealization; recognition of the need for modernization, "modernization" of Russian culture, as a borrowing of Western European values. The Westerners considered the ideal of a European to be a businesslike, pragmatic, emotionally restrained, rational being, distinguished by “healthy egoism”. Characteristic of the "Westerners" was also a religious orientation towards Catholicism and ecumenism (a fusion of Catholicism with Orthodoxy), as well as cosmopolitanism. According to their political sympathies, the "Westerners" were Republicans, they were characterized by anti-monarchist sentiments.

In fact, the "Westerners" were supporters of industrial culture - the development of industry, natural science, technology, but within the framework of capitalist, private property relations.

They were opposed by the "Slavophiles", distinguished by their complex of stereotypes. They were characterized by a critical attitude towards the culture of Europe; its rejection as inhumane, immoral, unspiritual; absolutization in it features of decline, decadence, decay. On the other hand, they were distinguished by nationalism and patriotism, admiration for the culture of Russia, absolutization of its uniqueness, originality, glorification of the historical past. "Slavophiles" associated their expectations with the peasant community, considering it as the guardian of everything "holy" in culture.

Orthodoxy was considered the spiritual core of culture, which was also considered uncritically, its role in the spiritual life of Russia was exaggerated. Accordingly, anti-Catholicism and a negative attitude towards ecumenism were asserted. The Slavophils were distinguished by their monarchical orientation, admiration for the figure of the peasant - the owner, the "owner", and a negative attitude towards the workers as a "ulcer of society", a product of the decomposition of its culture.

Thus, the "Slavophiles", in fact, defended the ideals of an agrarian culture and occupied a protective, conservative position.

The confrontation between "Westerners" and "Slavophiles" reflected the growing contradiction between agrarian and industrial cultures, between two forms of ownership - feudal and bourgeois, between two classes - the nobility and capitalists. But the contradictions within capitalist relations, between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie, were also implicitly aggravated. The revolutionary, proletarian direction in culture stands out as an independent one and, in fact, will determine the development of Russian culture in the 20th century.

Education and enlightenment

In 1897 the All-Russian population census was carried out. According to the census, in Russia the average literacy rate was 21.1%: for men - 29.3%, for women - 13.1%, about 1% of the population had higher and secondary education. In secondary school, in relation to the entire literate population, only 4% studied. At the turn of the century, the education system still included three levels: primary (parochial schools, public schools), secondary (classical gymnasiums, real and commercial schools) and higher education (universities, institutes).

1905 The Ministry of Public Education submitted a draft law "On the introduction of universal primary education in the Russian Empire" for consideration II State Duma However, this project never received the force of law. But the growing need for specialists contributed to the development of higher, especially technical, education. In 1912, there were 16 higher technical educational institutions apart from private higher education institutions. The university admitted persons of both sexes, regardless of nationality and political views. Therefore, the number of students increased markedly - from 14 thousand in the mid-1990s to 35.3 thousand in 1907. Higher education for women also received further development, and in 1911 the right of women to higher education was legally recognized.

Simultaneously with Sunday schools, new types of cultural and educational institutions for adults began to operate - work courses, educational workers' societies and people's houses - original clubs with a library, an assembly hall, a tea shop and a trading shop.

The development of the periodical press and book publishing had a great influence on education. In the 1860s, 7 daily newspapers were published and about 300 printing houses were operating. In the 1890s - 100 newspapers and about 1000 printing houses. And in 1913, 1263 newspapers and magazines were already published, and in the cities there were approximately 2 thousand bookstores.

In terms of the number of published books, Russia ranked third in the world after Germany and Japan. In 1913, 106.8 million copies of books were published in Russian alone. The largest book publishers A.S. Suvorin in St. Petersburg and I.D. Sytin in Moscow contributed to the familiarization of the people with literature, releasing books at affordable prices: Suvorin's "cheap library" and Sytin's "library for self-education".

The educational process was intense and successful, and the number of the reading public increased rapidly. This is evidenced by the fact that at the end of the XIX century. there were about 500 public libraries and about 3 thousand zemstvo folk reading rooms, and already in 1914 in Russia there were about 76 thousand different public libraries.

An equally important role in the development of culture was played by "illusion" - cinema, which appeared in St. Petersburg literally a year after its invention in France. By 1914 in Russia there were already 4,000 cinemas, which showed not only foreign, but also domestic films. The need for them was so great that between 1908 and 1917 more than two thousand new feature films were made. In 1911-1913. V.A. Starevich created the world's first three-dimensional animations.

The science

The 19th century brings significant success in the development of domestic science: it claims to be equal to Western European science, and sometimes even to be superior. It is impossible not to mention a number of works by Russian scientists that led to world-class achievements. D. I. Mendeleev in 1869 discovers the periodic system of chemical elements. A. G. Stoletov in 1888-1889 establishes the laws of the photoelectric effect. In 1863, the work of I. M. Sechenov "Reflexes of the brain" was published. K. A. Timiryazev founded the Russian school of plant physiology. P. N. Yablochkov creates an arc light bulb, A. N. Lodygin - an incandescent light bulb.

AS Popov invents the radiotelegraph. A.F. Mozhaisky and N.E. Zhukovsky laid the foundations of aviation with their research in the field of aerodynamics, and K.E. Tsiolkovsky is known as the founder of astronautics. P. N. Lebedev is the founder of research in the field of ultrasound. II Mechnikov explores the field of comparative pathology, microbiology and immunology. The foundations of the new sciences - biochemistry, biogeochemistry, radiogeology - were laid by V.I. Vernadsky. And it's far from full list people who have made an invaluable contribution to the development of science and technology. The importance of scientific foresight and a number of fundamental scientific problems, set by scientists at the beginning of the century, is becoming clear only now.

The humanities were greatly influenced by the processes taking place in the natural sciences. Scientists in the humanities, such as V. O. Klyuchevsky, S. F. Platonov, S. A. Vengerov and others, worked fruitfully in the field of economics, history, and literary criticism. Idealism has become widespread in philosophy. Russian religious philosophy, with its search for ways to combine the material and the spiritual, the assertion of a "new" religious consciousness, was perhaps the most important area not only of science, ideological struggle, but of the whole culture.

The foundations of the religious and philosophical Renaissance, which marked the "Silver Age" of Russian culture, were laid by V. S. Solovyov. His system is an experience of the synthesis of religion, philosophy and science, “moreover, it is not the Christian doctrine that is enriched by him at the expense of philosophy, but, on the contrary, he introduces Christian ideas into philosophy and enriches and fertilizes philosophical thought with them” (V. V. Zenkovsky). Possessing a brilliant literary talent, he made philosophical problems accessible to wide circles of Russian society, moreover, he brought Russian thought to the universal spaces.

This period, marked by a whole constellation of brilliant thinkers - N.A. Berdyaev, S.N. Bulgakov, D.S. Merezhkovsky, G.P. Fedotov, P.A. Florensky and others - largely determined the direction of development of culture, philosophy, ethics, not only in Russia, but also in the West.

spiritual quest

During the "Silver Age" people are looking for new grounds for their spiritual and religious life. All sorts of mystical teachings are very common. The new mysticism eagerly sought its roots in the old, in the mysticism of the Alexander era. As well as a hundred years earlier, the teachings of Freemasonry, flocks, the Russian schism and other mystics became popular. Many creative people of that time took part in mystical rites, although not all of them fully believed in their content. V. Bryusov, Andrei Bely, D. Merezhkovsky, Z. Gippius, N. Berdyaev and many others were fond of magical experiments.

Theurgy occupied a special place among the mystical rites that spread at the beginning of the 20th century. Theurgy was conceived “as a one-time mystical act, which should be prepared by the spiritual efforts of individuals, but, having taken place, irreversibly changes human nature as such” (A. Etkind). The subject of the dream was the real transformation of each person and the whole society as a whole. In a narrow sense, the tasks of theurgy were almost understood in the same way as the tasks of therapy. We also find the idea of ​​the need to create a "new man" in such revolutionary figures as Lunacharsky and Bukharin. A parody of theurgy is presented in the works of Bulgakov.

The Silver Age is a time of opposition. The main opposition of this period is the opposition of nature and culture. Vladimir Solovyov, a philosopher who had a great influence on the formation of the ideas of the Silver Age, believed that the victory of culture over nature would lead to immortality, since "death is a clear victory of meaninglessness over meaning, chaos over space." In the end, theurgy also had to lead to victory over death.

In addition, the problems of death and love were closely connected. “Love and death become the main and almost the only forms of human existence, the main means of understanding it,” Solovyov believed. The understanding of love and death brings together the Russian culture of the "Silver Age" and psychoanalysis. Freud recognizes the main internal forces that affect a person - libido and thanatos, respectively, sexuality and the desire for death.

Berdyaev, considering the problem of gender and creativity, believes that a new natural order should come, in which creativity will win - "the sex that gives birth will be transformed into the sex that creates."

Many people sought to break out of everyday life, in search of a different reality. They chased after emotions, all experiences were considered good, regardless of their sequence and expediency. life creative people were saturated and overwhelmed with feelings. However, the consequence of this accumulation of experiences often turned out to be the deepest emptiness. Therefore, the fate of many people of the "Silver Age" is tragic. And yet, this difficult time of spiritual wandering gave rise to a beautiful and original culture.

Literature

Realistic trend in Russian literature at the turn of the 20th century. continued L. N. Tolstoy, A. P. Chekhov, who created his best works, the theme of which was the ideological search of the intelligentsia and the "little" man with his daily worries, and young writers I. A. Bunin and A. I. Kuprin.

In connection with the spread of neo-romanticism, new artistic qualities appeared in realism, reflecting reality. The best realistic works of A.M. Gorky reflected a broad picture of Russian life at the turn of the 20th century with its inherent peculiarity of economic development and ideological and social struggle.

At the end of the 19th century, when, in an atmosphere of political reaction and the crisis of populism, part of the intelligentsia was seized by moods of social and moral decline, decadence became widespread in artistic culture, a phenomenon in the culture of the 19th-20th centuries, marked by the rejection of citizenship, immersion in the sphere of individual experiences. Many motifs of this trend became the property of a number of artistic movements of modernism that arose at the turn of the 20th century.

Russian literature of the early 20th century gave rise to remarkable poetry, and the most significant trend was symbolism. For symbolists who believed in the existence of another world, the symbol was his sign, and represented the connection between the two worlds. One of the ideologists of symbolism, D. S. Merezhkovsky, whose novels are permeated with religious and mystical ideas, considered the predominance of realism to be the main reason for the decline of literature, and proclaimed "symbols", "mystical content" as the basis of new art. Along with the requirements of "pure" art, the Symbolists professed individualism, they are characterized by the theme of "elemental genius", close in spirit to Nietzsche's "superman".

It is customary to distinguish between "senior" and "junior" symbolists. "The Elders", V. Bryusov, K. Balmont, F. Sologub, D. Merezhkovsky, Z. Gippius, who came to literature in the 90s, a period of deep crisis in poetry, preached the cult of beauty and free self-expression of the poet. "Younger" Symbolists, A. Blok, A. Bely, Vyach. Ivanov, S. Solovyov, put forward philosophical and theosophical quests.

The Symbolists offered the reader a colorful myth about a world created according to the laws of eternal Beauty. If we add to this exquisite imagery, musicality and lightness of style, the steady popularity of poetry in this direction becomes understandable. The influence of symbolism with its intense spiritual quest, captivating artistry of a creative manner was experienced not only by the acmeists and futurists who replaced the symbolists, but also by the realist writer A.P. Chekhov.

By 1910, "symbolism had completed its circle of development" (N. Gumilyov), it was replaced by acmeism. The members of the group of acmeists were N. Gumilyov, S. Gorodetsky, A. Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam, V. Narbut, M. Kuzmin. They declared the liberation of poetry from symbolist appeals to the “ideal”, the return to it of clarity, materiality and “joyful admiration of being” (N. Gumilyov). Acmeism is characterized by a rejection of moral and spiritual quests, a penchant for aestheticism. A. Blok, with his inherent heightened sense of citizenship, noted the main drawback of acmeism: "... they do not have and do not want to have a shadow of an idea about Russian life and the life of the world in general."

However, the acmeists did not put all their postulates into practice, this is evidenced by the psychologism of the first collections of A. Akhmatova, the lyricism of the early 0. Mandelstam. In essence, the acmeists were not so much an organized movement with a common theoretical platform, but a group of talented and very different poets who were united by personal friendship.

At the same time, another modernist trend arose - futurism, which broke up into several groups: "Association of Ego-Futurists", "Mezzanine of Poetry", "Centrifuge", "Gilea", whose members called themselves Cubo-Futurists, Budtlyans, i.e. people from the future.

Of all the groups that at the beginning of the century proclaimed the thesis: “art is a game”, the Futurists most consistently embodied it in their work. In contrast to the symbolists with their idea of ​​"life-building", i.e. transforming the world with art, the Futurists emphasized the destruction of the old world. Common to the futurists was the denial of traditions in culture, the passion for form creation.

The demand of the Cubo-Futurists in 1912 to “throw Pushkin, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy from the steamer of modernity” received scandalous fame.

The groupings of acmeists and futurists that arose in polemics with symbolism turned out to be very close to him in practice in that their theories were based on an individualistic idea, and the desire to create vivid myths, and predominant attention to form.

There were bright individualities in the poetry of that time that cannot be attributed to a certain trend - M. Voloshin, M. Tsvetaeva. No other era has given such an abundance of declarations of its own exclusivity.

A special place in the literature of the turn of the century was occupied by peasant poets, like N. Klyuev. Without putting forward a clear aesthetic program, they embodied their ideas (the combination of religious and mystical motives with the problem of protecting the traditions of peasant culture) in their work. “Klyuev is popular because he combines the iambic spirit of Boratynsky with the prophetic tune of an illiterate Olonets storyteller” (Mandelstam). With peasant poets, especially with Klyuev, S. Yesenin was close at the beginning of his journey, combining in his work the traditions of folklore and classical art.

Theater and music

The most important event in the social and cultural life of Russia at the end of the XIX century. was the opening of an art theater in Moscow in 1898, founded by K. S. Stanislavsky and V. I. Nemirovich-Danchenko. In staging plays by Chekhov and Gorky, new principles of acting, directing, and design of performances were formed. An outstanding theatrical experiment, enthusiastically received by the democratic public, was not accepted by conservative criticism, as well as representatives of symbolism. V. Bryusov, a supporter of the aesthetics of a conventional symbolic theater, was closer to the experiments of V.E. Meyerhold, the founder of the metaphorical theater.

In 1904, the theater of V. F. Komissarzhevskaya arose in St. Petersburg, the repertoire of which reflected the aspirations of the democratic intelligentsia. E. B. Vakhtangov's directorial work is marked by the search for new forms, his productions of 1911-12. are joyful and entertaining. In 1915, Vakhtangov created the 3rd studio of the Moscow Art Theater, which later became the theater named after him (1926). One of the reformers of the Russian theater, the founder of the Moscow Chamber Theater A. Ya. Tairov, sought to create a "synthetic theater" of a predominantly romantic and tragic repertoire, to form actors of virtuoso skill.

The development of the best traditions of the musical theater is associated with the St. Petersburg Mariinsky and Moscow Bolshoi Theaters, as well as with the private opera of S. I. Mamontov and S. I. Zimin in Moscow. The most prominent representatives of the Russian vocal school, world-class singers were F. I. Chaliapin, L. V. Sobinov, N. V. Nezhdanova. The ballet master M. M. Fokin and the ballerina A. P. Pavlova became the reformers of the ballet theater. Russian art has received worldwide recognition.

The outstanding composer N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov continued to work in his favorite genre of fairy-tale opera. The highest example of realistic drama was his opera The Tsar's Bride (1898). He, being a professor at the St. Petersburg Conservatory in the composition class, brought up a galaxy of talented students: A. K. Glazunov, A. K. Lyadov, N. Ya. Myaskovsky and others.

In the work of composers of the younger generation at the turn of the 20th century. there was a departure from social issues, increased interest in philosophical and ethical problems. This found its fullest expression in the work of the brilliant pianist and conductor, the outstanding composer S. V. Rachmaninoff; in the emotionally intense music of A. N. Scriabin, with sharp features of modernism; in the works of I.F. Stravinsky, which harmoniously combined interest in folklore and the most modern musical forms.

Architecture

The era of industrial progress turn of XIX-XX centuries revolutionized the construction industry. Buildings of a new type, such as banks, shops, factories, railway stations, occupied an increasing place in the urban landscape. The emergence of new building materials (reinforced concrete, metal structures) and the improvement of construction equipment made it possible to use constructive and artistic techniques, the aesthetic understanding of which led to the approval of the Art Nouveau style!

In the work of F. O. Shekhtel, the main development trends and genres of Russian modernity were embodied to the greatest extent. The formation of style in the work of the master went in two directions - national-romantic, in line with the neo-Russian style and rational. The features of Art Nouveau are most fully manifested in the architecture of the Nikitsky Gate mansion, where, abandoning traditional schemes, an asymmetric planning principle is applied. The stepped composition, the free development of volumes in space, the asymmetric protrusions of bay windows, balconies and porches, the emphatically protruding cornice - all this demonstrates the principle of assimilation of an architectural structure to an organic form inherent in Art Nouveau.

In the decoration of the mansion, such typical Art Nouveau techniques as colored stained-glass windows and a mosaic frieze with floral ornament encircling the entire building were used. The whimsical twists of the ornament are repeated in the interweaving of stained-glass windows, in the pattern of balcony bars and street fences. The same motif is used in interior decoration, for example, in the form of marble staircase railings. Furniture and decorative details of the interiors of the building form a single whole with the general idea of ​​the building - to turn the living environment into a kind of architectural performance, close to the atmosphere of symbolic plays.

With the growth of rationalistic tendencies in a number of Shekhtel's buildings, features of constructivism were outlined - a style that would take shape in the 1920s.

In Moscow, the new style expressed itself especially brightly, in particular in the work of one of the founders of Russian Art Nouveau L. N. Kekushev. A. V. Shchusev, V. M. Vasnetsov and others worked in the neo-Russian style. In St. Petersburg, Art Nouveau was influenced by monumental classicism, as a result, another style appeared - neoclassicism.

In terms of the integrity of the approach and the ensemble solution of architecture, sculpture, painting, decorative arts, modern is one of the most consistent styles.

Sculpture

Like architecture, sculpture at the turn of the century was freed from eclecticism. The renewal of the artistic and figurative system is associated with the influence of impressionism. The features of the new method are “looseness”, unevenness of texture, dynamism of forms, permeated with air and light.

The very first consistent representative of this direction P.P. Trubetskoy, abandons the impressionistic modeling of the surface, and enhances the overall impression of oppressive brute force.

In its own way, monumental pathos is alien to the wonderful monument to Gogol in Moscow by the sculptor N. A. Andreev, subtly conveying the tragedy of the great writer, “heart fatigue”, so consonant with the era. Gogol is captured in a moment of concentration, deep reflection with a touch of melancholy gloom.

An original interpretation of impressionism is inherent in the work of A. S. Golubkina, who reworked the principle of depicting phenomena in motion into the idea of ​​awakening the human spirit. The female images created by the sculptor are marked by a sense of compassion for people who are tired, but not broken by life's trials.

Painting

At the turn of the century, instead of the realistic method of directly reflecting reality in the forms of this reality, there was an assertion of the priority of artistic forms that reflect reality only indirectly. The polarization of artistic forces at the beginning of the 20th century, the controversy of multiple artistic groups intensified exhibition and publishing (in the field of art) activities.

Genre painting lost its leading role in the 1990s. Artists in search of new themes turned to changes in the traditional way of life. They were equally attracted by the theme of the split of the peasant community, the prose of mind-numbing labor, and the revolutionary events of 1905. The blurring of boundaries between genres at the turn of the century in the historical household genre. A.P. Ryabushkin was not interested in global historical events, but in the aesthetics of the Russian way of life XVII c., the refined beauty of ancient Russian patterning, emphasized decorativeness.

Penetrating lyricism, a deep understanding of the originality of the way of life, characters and psychology of the people of pre-Petrine Rus' marked the best canvases of the artist. Historical painting by Ryabushkin is a country of ideal, where the artist found rest from the "lead abominations" of modern life. Therefore, the historical life on his canvases appears not as a dramatic, but as an aesthetic side.

In the historical canvases of A. V. Vasnetsov we find the development of the landscape principle. The work of M. V. Nesterov was a variant of a retrospective landscape, through which the high spirituality of the characters was conveyed.

I. I. Levitan, who brilliantly mastered the effects of plein air writing, continuing the lyrical direction in the landscape, approached impressionism and was the creator of the “conceptual landscape” or “mood landscape”, which has a rich range of experiences: from joyful elation to philosophical reflections on the frailty of everything earthly .

K. A. Korovin, the most prominent representative of Russian impressionism, the first among Russian artists who consciously relied on the French impressionists, increasingly departed from the traditions of the Moscow school of painting with its psychologism and even drama, trying to convey this or that state of mind with music of color. He created a series of landscapes, uncomplicated by either external plot-narrative or psychological motifs.

In the 1910s, under the influence of theatrical practice, Korovin came to a bright, intense manner of painting, especially in his favorite still lifes. With all his art, the artist affirmed the inherent value of purely pictorial tasks, he forced to appreciate the “charm of incompleteness”, the “etude” of the pictorial manner. Korovin's canvases are a "feast for the eyes".

The central figure in the art of the turn of the century is V. A. Serov. His mature works, with impressionistic luminosity and dynamics of a free stroke, marked a turn from the critical realism of the Wanderers to "poetic realism" (D. V. Sarabyanov). The artist worked in different genres, but his talent as a portrait painter, endowed with a heightened sense of beauty and the ability for sober analysis, is especially significant. The search for the laws of artistic transformation of reality, the desire for symbolic generalizations led to a change in the artistic language: from the impressionistic authenticity of paintings of the 80s and 90s to the conventions of modernity in historical compositions.

One after another, two masters of pictorial symbolism entered Russian culture, creating a sublime world in their works - M. A. Vrubel and V. E. Borisov-Musatov. Central image Vrubel's work is the Demon, who embodied the rebellious impulse that the artist himself experienced and felt in his best contemporaries.

The art of the artist is characterized by the desire to stage philosophical problems. His reflections on truth and beauty, on the lofty purpose of art, are sharp and dramatic, in their characteristic symbolic form. Gravitating towards the symbolic and philosophical generalization of images, Vrubel developed his own pictorial language - a broad stroke of "crystal" form and color, understood as colored light. Paints that sparkle like gems enhance the feeling of a special spirituality, inherent in works artist.

The art of the lyricist and dreamer Borisov-Musatov is a reality turned into a poetic symbol. Like Vrubel, Borisov-Musatov created in his canvases a beautiful and sublime world, built according to the laws of beauty and so unlike the surrounding one. The art of Borisov-Musatov is imbued with sad reflection and quiet sorrow with the feelings experienced by many people of that time, “when society was thirsting for renewal, and very many did not know where to look for it.”

His style developed from impressionistic light and air effects to a pictorial and decorative version of post-impressionism. In Russian artistic culture at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. the work of Borisov-Musatov is one of the most striking and large-scale phenomena.

The theme, far from modernity, "dreamy retrospectivism" is the main association of St. Petersburg artists "World of Art". Rejecting the academic-salon art and the tendentiousness of the Wanderers, relying on the poetics of symbolism, the "World of Art" searched for artistic image in the past.

For such a frank rejection of modern reality, the "World of Art" was criticized from all sides, accused of fleeing into the past - passeism, decadence, anti-democratism. However, the emergence of such an artistic movement was no accident. The World of Art was a kind of response of the Russian creative intelligentsia to the general politicization of culture at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. and excessive publicity of the fine arts.

The work of N. K. Roerich is addressed to the pagan Slavic and Scandinavian antiquity. The basis of his painting has always been a landscape, often directly natural. The features of Roerich's landscape are connected both with the assimilation of the experience of the Art Nouveau style - the use of elements of a parallel perspective in order to combine in one composition various objects that are understood as pictorially equivalent, and with a passion for the culture of ancient India - the opposition of earth and sky, understood by the artist as a source of spirituality.

B. M. Kustodiev, the most gifted author of the ironic stylization of popular popular print, Z. E. Serebryakova, who professed the aesthetics of neoclassicism, belonged to the second generation of “World of Art” artists. The merit of the "World of Art" was the creation of highly artistic book graphics, prints, new criticism, extensive publishing and exhibition activities.

Moscow participants of the exhibitions, opposing the Westernism of the "World of Art" with national themes, and graphic stylism with an appeal to the open air, established the exhibition association "Union of Russian Artists". In the bowels of the Soyuz, a Russian version of impressionism and an original synthesis of the everyday genre with the architectural landscape developed.

The artists of the Jack of Diamonds association (1910-1916), turning to the aesthetics of post-impressionism, fauvism and cubism, as well as to the techniques of Russian popular prints and folk toys, solved the problems of revealing the materiality of nature, constructing a form with color. The initial principle of their art was the assertion of the subject as opposed to spatiality. In this regard, the image of inanimate nature - still life - was put forward in the first place. The materialized, "still life" beginning was also introduced into the traditional psychological genre - the portrait.

"Lyrical Cubism" by R. R. Falk was distinguished by a peculiar psychologism, subtle color-plastic harmony. The school of mastery studied at the school by such outstanding artists and teachers as V. A. Serov and K. A. Korovin, in combination with the pictorial and plastic experiments of the leaders of the "Jack of Diamonds" I. I. Mashkov, M. F. Larionov, A. V. Lentulova determined the origins of Falk’s original artistic style, a vivid embodiment of which is the famous “Red Furniture”.

Since the mid-10s, Futurism has become an important component of the pictorial style of the Jack of Diamonds, one of the techniques of which was the “montage” of objects or their parts taken from different points and at different times.

The primitivist trend associated with the assimilation of the style of children's drawings, signs, popular prints and folk toys, manifested itself in the work of M.F. Larionov, one of the organizers of the Jack of Diamonds. Both folk naive art and Western expressionism are close to the fantastically irrational canvases of M. Z. Chagall. The combination of fantastic flights and miraculous signs with everyday details of provincial life on Chagall's canvases is akin to Gogol's stories. The unique work of P. N. Filonov was in contact with the primitivist line.

The first experiments of Russian artists in abstract art date back to the 10s of the last century; V. V. Kandinsky and K. S. Malevich became true theorists and practitioners. At the same time, the work of K. S. Petrov-Vodkin, who declared a successive connection with ancient Russian icon painting, testified to the vitality of tradition. The extraordinary diversity and inconsistency of artistic pursuits, numerous groups with their own program settings reflected the tense socio-political and complex spiritual atmosphere of their time.

Conclusion

The "Silver Age" became exactly the milestone that predicted future changes in the state and became a thing of the past with the advent of the blood-red 1917, which unrecognizably changed people's souls. And no matter how today they wanted to assure us of the opposite, it all ended after 1917, with the outbreak of the civil war. There was no "Silver Age" after that. In the twenties, inertia (the heyday of imagism) continued, for such a wide and powerful wave as the Russian “Silver Age” was, could not move for some time before collapsing and breaking.

If most of the poets, writers, critics, philosophers, artists, directors, composers were alive, whose individual creativity and common work created the Silver Age, but the era itself ended. Each of its active participants was aware that, although people remained, the characteristic atmosphere of the era, in which talents grew like mushrooms after rain, came to naught. Left cold lunar landscape without atmosphere and creative individuality - each in a separately closed cell of his creativity.

An attempt to "modernize" culture, associated with the reform of P. A. Stolypin, was unsuccessful. Its results were smaller than expected and gave rise to new controversy. The increase in tension in society was faster than the answers to emerging conflicts were found. Contradictions between agrarian and industrial cultures were aggravated, which was also expressed in the contradictions of economic forms, interests and motives of people's creativity, in the political life of society.

Deep social transformations were required in order to provide scope for the cultural creativity of the people, significant investments in the development of the spiritual sphere of society, its technical base, for which the government did not have enough funds. Patronage, private support and financing of significant public and cultural events did not save either. Nothing could fundamentally change the cultural face of the country. The country fell into a period of unstable development and found no other way out than a social revolution.

The canvas of the "Silver Age" turned out to be bright, complex, contradictory, but immortal and unique. It was a creative space full of sunshine, bright and life-giving, longing for beauty and self-affirmation. It reflected the existing reality. And although we call this time the “silver” and not the “golden age”, perhaps it was the most creative era in Russian history.

Information sources:

• rustrana.ru - article "Culture of the Silver Age"
• shkola.lv - article "The Silver Age of Russian Culture"

MOSCOW INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT

Specialty - organization management

Specialization

Study group

COURSE WORK

By discipline: cultural studies

on the topic: "The "Silver Age" in Russian culture"

STUDENT I.V. Zhuravleva

SUPERVISOR _____________________

Moscow 2006

Introduction ................................................ ...............................................3

Chapter 1. "Silver Age" in Russian culture .............................. 5

1.1. Science .................................................. ..............................................5

1.2. Literature ............................................... ....................................7

1.3.Theater and music............................................... ...............................9

1.4.Architecture and sculpture............................................... .........eleven

1.5.Painting............................................... .....................................13

Chapter 2. Russian “Renaissance” ............................................. ...........16

Conclusion................................................. ......................................19

Bibliography............................................... 21

Introduction

The "Silver Age" in Russian culture, although it turned out to be surprisingly short (late XIX - early XX centuries), but it left its mark on the history of Russia. I consider this topic relevant, since during this period Russian culture has managed to reach the world level. The culture of Russia of the "Silver Age" is marked high development, many achievements and discoveries. I believe that every citizen of his country should know about its culture.

The great upheavals that our country experienced in a relatively short historical period could not but be reflected in its cultural development. Russian culture, without losing its national identity, increasingly acquired the features of a pan-European character. Its ties with other countries have increased.

goal in my term paper- to study and analyze the "Silver Age" in Russian culture. In order to approach this goal, it is necessary to solve some of the tasks set by me. In the first chapter of my work, I want to consider everything that happened during the "Silver Age" in science, literature, theater, music, architecture, sculpture and painting. In science, there are various achievements and discoveries of world significance. Modernist trends appear in literature: symbolism, acmeism, futurism. Theater and music reach the highest level among other countries. There are great composers. It is also worth paying attention to the greatest Russian sculptors: Trubetskoy, Konenkov, Erzya, who managed to express the main trends in the development of domestic trends. It is necessary to get acquainted with the work of the "world artists", which is associated with the revival of book graphics and the art of the book. In the "Silver Age" there was the "modern" style, which had folk roots, relying on an advanced industrial base, and absorbed the achievements of world architecture. "Modern" can be found today in any old city. One has only to look at the rounded windows, exquisite stucco and curved balcony grilles of any mansion, hotel or shop. The "Silver Age", first of all, includes a spiritual phenomenon: the Russian religious revival of the early twentieth century. Therefore, in the second chapter of my work, I want to study and analyze the religious "renaissance". Philosophical thought reaches true peaks, which gave rise to the great philosopher N.A. Berdyaev to call the era “religious and cultural renaissance”. Solovyov, Berdyaev, Bulgakov and other major philosophers had a strong, sometimes decisive influence on the development of various spheres of Russian culture. Especially important in Russian philosophy was the appeal to ethical issues, focusing on the spiritual world of the individual, on such categories as life and destiny, conscience and love, insight and delusion.

Now it is necessary to solve all the tasks set by me, thereby I will be able to fulfill the goal in my course work.

Chapter 1. "Silver Age" in Russian culture

Culture of Russia in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. absorbed artistic traditions, aesthetic and moral ideals of the "golden age" of the previous time. At the turn of the XIX - early XX centuries. in the spiritual life of Europe and Russia, there appeared tendencies related to the attitude of a person of the twentieth century. They demanded a new understanding of social and moral problems: personality and society, art and life, the place of the artist in society, etc. All this led to the search for new visual methods and means. A peculiar historical and artistic period developed in Russia, which his contemporaries called the "silver age" of Russian culture. Expression and name "silver Age" is poetic and metaphorical, neither strict nor definite. A. Akhmatova has it in the well-known lines: "And the silver month froze brightly over the silver age ...". It is used by N. Berdyaev. A. Bely called one of his novels "Silver Dove". The editor of the magazine "Apollo" S. Makovsky used it to designate the entire time of the beginning of the 20th century. Russian culture in the conditions of the development of the country at the beginning of the 20th century acquired a significant scope and a number of new directions. In Russia, there was an upsurge in the field of education: the number of educational institutions grew, the activities of teachers and teachers of higher educational institutions became more active. The publishing business developed rapidly. Now let's take a closer look at what happened during the Silver Age in science, literature, theater, music, architecture, sculpture and painting.

1.1 Science

In the second half of the XIX - early XX century. the process of differentiation of sciences, their division into fundamental and applied ones, deepened. The needs of Russia's industrial development and new attempts at philosophical understanding of the relationship between nature and society left a special imprint on the state of the natural and human sciences.

In the natural sciences, the discovery of the Periodic Law of Chemical Elements by D.I. Mendeleev was of the greatest importance. classical theory chemical structure organic bodies were created by A.M. Butlerov. Fundamental and applied value had research mathematicians P.L. Chebyshev, A.M. Lyapunov in the field of number theory, probability theory and a number of sections of mathematical physics. Outstanding discoveries were made in physics and mechanics. The works of A.G. Stoletov prepared the conditions for the creation of modern electronic technology. coup in electric lighting made the discoveries of P.N. Yablochkov (arc lamp), A.N. Lodygin (incandescent lamp). The gold medal was awarded to A.S. Popov for the invention of electrical communication without wires (radio). PN Lebedev confirmed the electromagnetic nature of light. N.E. Zhukovsky created the theory of hydraulic shock, discovered the law that determines the magnitude of the lift force of an aircraft wing, developed the vortex theory of a propeller, etc. K.E. Tsiolkovsky substantiated the possibility of space flights with his work in the field of rocket dynamics. The encyclopedic works of V.I.Vernadsky contributed to the emergence of new trends in geochemistry, biochemistry, and radiology. Major successes were noted in the development of biology and medicine. I.M. Pavlov developed the doctrine of higher nervous activity and the physiology of digestion. K.A. Timiryazev founded the Russian school of plant physiology. Russian geographers and ethnographers continued their exploration of little-known countries. S.O. Makarov made 2 circumnavigation, gave a systematic description of the Black, Marmara and North Seas. He also suggested using icebreakers to explore the Northern sea ​​route. Discoveries in the natural sciences (the divisibility of the atom, x-rays, radioactivity) changed the previous idea of ​​the materiality of the world and greatly influenced the social sciences. Philosophy manifested the need for a new understanding of nature, society and their connection with man. Criticism of Ch.Darwin's evolutionary theory intensified. At the same time, Marxism became widespread in Russia as a philosophical basis for the knowledge and transformation of society. Interest in historical knowledge has grown tremendously. S. M. Solovyov wrote many works on various historical problems. VO Klyuchevsky had a huge impact on the development of national historical science.

Thus, we examined the main achievements in the development of science of the "Silver Age".

1.2 Literature

Russian literature continued to play an exceptionally important role in the cultural life of the country.

realistic direction in Russian literature at the turn of the twentieth century. continued L.N. Tolstoy (“Resurrection”, “Hadji Murad”, “Living Corpse”), A.P. Bunin ("The Village", "The Gentleman from San Francisco") and A.I. Kuprin ("Olesya", "The Pit"). At the same time, new artistic qualities appeared in realism. This is connected with the spread of neo-romanticism. Already the first neo-romantic works "Makar Chudra", "Chelkash" and others brought fame to A.M. Gorky.

Appear in the literature modernist trends: symbolism, acmeism, futurism.

Russian symbolism How literary direction developed at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. Creativity in the understanding of the symbolists is a subconscious-intuitive contemplation of secret meanings that are accessible only to the artist-creator. The theoretical, philosophical and aesthetic roots and sources of creativity of writers-symbolists were very diverse. So V. Bryusov considered symbolism a purely artistic direction, Merezhkovsky relied on Christian teaching, Vyach. Ivanov sought theoretical support in the philosophy and aesthetics of the ancient world, refracted through the philosophy of Nietzsche; A. Bely was fond of Vl. Solovyov, Schopenhauer, Kant, Nietzsche.

The artistic and journalistic organ of the Symbolists was the journal Scales (1904-1909).

It is customary to distinguish between "senior" and "junior" symbolists. The "elder" (V. Bryusov, K. Balmont, F. Sologub, D. Merezhkovsky), who came to literature in the 90s, preached the cult of beauty and free self-expression of the poet. The “younger” symbolists (A. Blok, A. Bely, Vyach. Ivanov, S. Solovyov) brought philosophical and theosophical quests to the fore. The Symbolists offered the reader a colorful myth about a world created according to the laws of eternal Beauty.

In 1910, symbolism was replaced by acmeism(from the Greek "acme" - the highest degree of something). N.S. Gumilyov (1886 - 1921) and S.M. Gorodetsky (1884 - 1967) are considered the founders of acmeism. Acmeists, in contrast to the symbolic nebula, proclaimed the cult of real earthly existence, "a courageously firm and clear outlook on life." But together with him they tried to affirm, above all, the aesthetic-hedonistic function of art, evading social problems in their poetry. Philosophical idealism remained the theoretical basis. However, among the acmeists there were poets who in their work were able to go beyond this “platform” and acquire new ideological and artistic qualities (A.A. Akhmatova, S.M. Gorodetsky, M.A. Zenkevich). The work of A.A. Akhmatova occupies a special place in the poetry of acmeism. The first collections by A. Akhmatova "Evening" and "Rosary" brought her great fame.

Simultaneously with acmeism in 1910-1912. arose futurism, divided into several groups: "Association of Egofuturists" (I. Severyanin and others), "Mezzanine of Poetry" (V. Lavrenev, R. Ivlev and others), "Centrifuge" (N. Aseev, B. Pasternak and others. ), "Gilea", the participants of which D. Burlyuk, V. Mayakovsky, V. Khlebnikov and others called themselves Cubo-Futurists, Budtlyans, i.e. people from the future. Futurism proclaimed a revolution of form, independent of content, the absolute freedom of poetic speech. Futurists abandoned literary traditions.

There were bright individualities in the poetry of that time, which cannot be attributed to a certain trend - M. Voloshin (1877-1932), M. Tsvetaeva (1892-1941).

Conclusion: modernist trends appeared in the literature of the Silver Age: symbolism, acmeism and futurism.

1.3. Theater and music

The most important event in the social and cultural life of Russia at the end of the 19th century was the opening of an art theater in Moscow (1898), founded by K.S. Stanislavsky and V.I. Nemirovich-Danchenko. At first, the new theater was not easy. The income from the performances did not cover the expenses. Savva Morozov came to the rescue, having invested half a million rubles in the theater in five years. In a short time, an ensemble of remarkable actors was formed in the Art Theater (V.I. Kachalov, I.M. Moskvin, O.L. Kniper-Chekhov, etc.). In staging plays by Chekhov and Gorky, new principles of acting, directing, and design of performances were formed. An outstanding theatrical experiment, enthusiastically received by the democratic public, was not accepted by conservative criticism. In 1904, the theater of VF Komissarzhevskaya arose in St. Petersburg, the repertoire of which reflected the aspirations of the democratic intelligentsia. The directing work of Stanislavsky's student E.B. Vakhtangov is marked by the search for new forms, his productions of 1911-1912. are joyful and entertaining. In 1915, Vakhtangov created the 3rd studio of the Moscow Art Theater. One of the reformers of the Russian theater, A.Ya. Tairov, sought to create a "synthetic theater" with a predominantly romantic and tragic repertoire. Russian theater of the 19th century - This is mainly the theater of the actor. Only a very well-coordinated troupe made up a single ensemble.

The influence of the Moscow Art Theater in those years also extended beyond the dramatic stage. A galaxy of wonderful "singing actors" appeared on the opera stage - F.I. Chaliapin, L.V. Sobinov, A.V. Nezhdanova. Gifted with brilliant vocal abilities, during the performance they not only performed their opera parts, but also played like first-class actors. Of particular importance for the popularization of the theatrical and musical art of Russia was the activity of S.P. Diaghilev, who organized the Russian Seasons (1907-1913) in Europe, which became a triumph of Russian culture. The names of Russian dancers flashed on the newspaper pages - Anna Pavlova, Tamara Karsavina, Vaslav Nijinsky. Representatives of the "Mighty Handful" (M.P. Mussorgsky, N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov, etc.) and other Russian composers (P.I. Tchaikovsky, S.V. Rakhmaninov, etc.) created many opera, ballet, chamber - vocal and symphonic works. At the beginning of the twentieth century. The search for new musical means of expression was continued by A.N. Skryabin, in whose works chamber and symphony surprisingly intertwined.

Conclusion: in the second half of the XIX century. our music has received worldwide recognition and has a place in the family of European cultures. The first years of the 20th century saw the heyday of the Russian theater.

1.4.Architecture and sculpture

In the second half of the XIX century. Russian architects faced new challenges. Previously, they built mainly palaces and temples, but now they had to design railway stations, factory buildings, huge shops, banks. The use of iron and glass expanded, and the use of concrete began. The emergence of new building materials and the improvement of construction technology made it possible to use constructive and artistic techniques, the aesthetic understanding of which led to the establishment of the Art Nouveau style (from the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the World War). Masters of the "modern" era sought to ensure that everyday items bore the imprint of folk traditions. Convex glass, curved window sashes, fluid forms of metal bars - all this came to architecture from "modern". In the work of F.O. Shekhtel (1859-1926), the main development trends and genres of Russian modernity were embodied to the greatest extent. The formation of style in the master's work went in two directions - national-romantic, in line with the neo-Russian style (Yaroslavsky railway station in Moscow, 1903) and rational (A.A. Levenson's printing house in Mamontovsky per., 1900). The features of Art Nouveau were most fully manifested in the architecture of the Ryabushinsky mansion at the Nikitsky Gate, where the architect, abandoning traditional schemes, applied the asymmetric planning principle. The early "modern" was characterized by the desire for spontaneity, immersion in the flow of formation, development. In the late "modern" the calm "appolonistic" beginning began to prevail. Elements of classicism returned to architecture. In Moscow, the Museum of Fine Arts and the Borodinsky Bridge were built according to the project of the architect R.I. Klein. At the same time, the buildings of the Azov-Don and Russian commercial and industrial banks appeared in St. Petersburg.

Like architecture, sculpture at the turn of the century was freed from eclecticism. Eclecticism - a variety of directions and a shift in styles. The renewal of the artistic and figurative system is associated with the influence of impressionism. The first consistent representative of this trend was P.P. Trubetskoy (1866-1938). Already in the first works of the sculptor, the features of the new method appeared - “looseness”, unevenness of texture, dynamism of forms, permeated with air and light. The most remarkable work of Trubetskoy is the monument to Alexander III in St. Petersburg (1909, bronze). Trubetskoy's younger contemporary was S.T. Konenkov. He managed to introduce folk motifs into sculpture, which, first of all, were embodied in carvings on huts, handicraft toys and other works. applied arts. S.F. Nefedov-Erzya was able to convey both the state of mind and the beauty of the human body in his sculptures. Marble, wood, and such new materials as cement and reinforced concrete were obedient to him.

Conclusion: the age of "modern" was very short, but it was a very bright period in the history of architecture. In addition to Trubetskoy, Konenkov and Erzya, there were others working in Russia at that time. famous sculptors, but it was these three masters who with particular force managed to express the main trends in the development of domestic trends at the beginning of the 20th century - increased attention to the inner world of a person and the desire for nationality.

1.5.Painting

At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries, significant changes took place in Russian painting. Genre scenes faded into the background. The landscape lost its photographic quality and linear perspective, becoming more democratic, based on the combination and play of color spots. The portraits often combined the ornamental conventionality of the background and the sculptural clarity of the face. The blurring of boundaries between genres at the turn of the century in the historical theme led to the emergence of historical genre. Artists of this direction: A.P. Ryabushkin, A.V. Vasnetsov, M.V. Nesterov. Impressionism, as a direction, is represented in the works of such artists as I.I. Levitan (“Birch Grove”, “March”); K.A. Korovin is the brightest representative of Russian impressionism (“Paris”). The central figure in the art of the turn of the century V.A. Serov (“Girl with peaches”, “Girl illuminated by the sun”). The representatives of the picturesque symbolism were M. Vrubel and V. Borisov-Musatov. M.A. Vrubel was a versatile master. He successfully worked on monumental murals, paintings, decorations, drawings for stained glass windows. The central image of Vrubel's work is the Demon ("Seated Demon", "Prone Demon"). V. Borisov-Musatov created a beautiful and sublime world in his canvases. His work is one of the most striking and large-scale phenomena. At the turn of the century, the artistic association "World of Art" appeared. Artists of this direction: K.A.Somov, N.A.Benois, E.E.Lancere, M.V.Nesterov, N.K.Roerich, S.P.Dyagilev and others. when huge cities grew, built up with faceless factory buildings. They were worried that art was being squeezed out and became the property of a small circle of "chosen ones". The revival of book graphics, the art of the book, is connected with the work of the “world artists”. Without limiting themselves to illustrations, the artists introduced cover sheets, intricate vignettes and endings in the Art Nouveau style into books. The understanding came that the design of the book should be closely related to its content. The graphic designer began to pay attention to such details as the size of the book, the color of the paper, the font, the edge.

In 1907, another artistic association arose in Moscow “ Blue Rose”, which included symbolist artists, followers of Borisov-Musatov (P.V. Kuznetsov, M.S. Saryan). The “Goluborozites” were influenced by the Art Nouveau style, hence character traits their painting is a flat-decorative stylization of forms, the search for sophisticated color solutions.

The artists of the “Jack of Diamonds” association (R.R. Falk, I.I. Mashkov and others), having turned to the aesthetics of post-impressionism, fauvism and cubism, as well as to the techniques of Russian popular print and folk toys, solved the problems of revealing the materiality of nature, building a form color. The initial principle of their art was the assertion of the subject as opposed to spatiality. In this regard, the image of inanimate nature - still life - was put forward in the first place.

In the 1910s in painting is born primitivist a trend associated with the assimilation of the style of children's drawings, signs, popular prints and folk toys. Representatives of this trend are M.F. Larionov, N.S. Goncharova, M.Z. Shagal, P.N. Filonov. The first experiments of Russian artists in abstract art date back to this time, one of the first manifestos of which was Larionov's book "Luchism" (1913), and V.V. Kandinsky and K.S. Malevich became true theorists and practitioners.

Thus, the extraordinary diversity and inconsistency of artistic pursuits, numerous groupings with their own program settings reflected the tense socio-political and complex spiritual atmosphere of their time.

In general, the achievements of the Russian culture of the "Silver Age" received worldwide recognition. Many domestic scientists were honorary members of European academies and scientific institutions. Domestic science has been enriched by a number of achievements. The names of Russian travelers remained on the geographical map of the world. The creativity of artists is developing, their associations are being created. There are searches for new solutions and forms in architecture and sculpture. The art of music is enriched. Drama Theater is experiencing a period of prosperity. In domestic literature, new artistic forms were born.

Culture of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. marked high level development, many achievements that have replenished the treasury of world culture. She vividly expressed the turning point of her time, its searches, difficulties, both progressive and crisis phenomena.

Religious philosophy reached special heights, giving the whole period the name of the philosophical renaissance, which we will get acquainted with in the next chapter of my term paper.

Chapter 2. Russian "Renaissance"

The Silver Age is a manifestation of the spiritual and artistic renaissance, marking the rise of Russian culture in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

The culture of the turn of the century rehabilitated the political "unprincipledness", ethical uncertainty, creative individualism and spiritual chosenness, condemned in due time by representatives of Russian democratic culture. This peculiar revival of the ideals and principles of the Russian classics gave reason to contemporaries to call the Silver Age metaphorically - the Russian "cultural renaissance". Among other things, this name included the idea of ​​the Renaissance completeness, universalism, cultural multidimensionality and encyclopedism. This characteristic of the Russian cultural Renaissance gives a lot for understanding the deep patterns of the Silver Age itself, which led Russia to the revolution.

Supporters of the religious Renaissance saw in the revolution of 1905-1907. a serious threat to the future of Russia, they perceived it as the beginning of a national catastrophe. They saw the salvation of Russia in the restoration of Christianity as the foundation of all culture, in the revival and affirmation of the ideals and values ​​of religious humanism. The onset of a cultural renaissance contradicted any rationalistic logic and was often justified only by the spiritual choice of Russian culture itself. N. Berdyaev, who continued and substantiated the concept of "Russian spiritual and cultural renaissance", characterized the implementation of a holistic style of culture in the Silver Age as a difficult struggle of "renaissance people" against the "narrowed consciousness" of the traditional intelligentsia. At the same time, it was a return to the creative heights of the spiritual culture of the 19th century.

The Russian cultural Renaissance was created by a whole constellation of brilliant humanitarians - N.A. Berdyaev, S.N. Bulgakov, D.S. Merezhkovsky, S.N. Trubetskoy and others. A collection of articles by prominent philosophers, Vekhi, published in 1909, sharply raised the question of the values ​​of the Russian intelligentsia, of understanding the ways of further development of Russia.

The foundations of the religious and philosophical Renaissance, which marked the "silver age" of Russian culture, were laid by V.S. It was at this time that the foundations of his future system began to take shape.

The condition for creating an integrative style of culture and achieving cultural synthesis at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. there was a repulsion from the differentiating tendencies of the previous era, a rethinking or rejection of the facts that limit the freedom of creativity and the creative personality. Among them, Berdyaev mentions social utilitarianism, positivism, materialism, as well as atheism and realism, which significantly schematized the philosophical, moral and aesthetic worldview of the Russian intelligentsia in the second half of the 19th century.

At the forefront of culture began to advance tasks:

Creative self-awareness of artists and thinkers of this time;

Creative rethinking and renewal of previously established cultural traditions;

Russian democratic social thought: at the same time, the democratic heritage was opposed mainly by the elite concepts of culture, which brought to the fore the creative personality and individual creativity - in the field of art, philosophy, science, morality, politics, religion, social life, everyday behavior, etc., those. any values ​​and norms;

As for the very principles of Russian democratic culture, the cultural figures of the Silver Age quite consistently opposed vulgarly interpreted materialism - conscious idealism, atheism - poetic religiosity and religious philosophy, nationalities - individualism and personal worldview, social utilitarianism - the desire for abstract philosophical Truth, abstract Good ;

The official canons of Orthodoxy, which was opposed to "creatively understood" religion - "new religious consciousness", sophiology, mystical-religious quest, theosophy, "God-seeking";

Well-established schools in art - classical realism in literature, wandering and academism in painting, kuchkism in music, the traditions of Ostrovsky's social realism in the theater, etc .; traditionalism in art was opposed by a variety of artistic modernism, including formal artistic innovation, demonstrative subjectivism.

Thus, the ground for a new cultural synthesis arose.

The Russian "Renaissance" reflected the attitude of people who lived and worked on the verge of centuries. The religious and philosophical thought of that period painfully searched for answers to the questions of Russian reality, trying to combine the incompatible material and spiritual, the denial of Christian dogmas and Christian ethics.

Conclusion

In conclusion, I would like to say that the work I have done is fully consistent with the goals and objectives set in the introduction. In the first chapter, I reviewed and analyzed the "Silver Age" in Russian culture, namely in science, literature, theater, music, architecture, sculpture and painting. In the second chapter, we got acquainted with the cultural "renaissance",

The period from the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the World War went down in history as the “silver age of Russian culture”. We learned that the "Silver Age" was of great importance for the development of not only Russian, but also world culture. Its leaders for the first time expressed serious concern that the emerging relationship between civilization and culture is becoming dangerous, that the preservation and revival of spirituality is an urgent need. It was at the turn of the century that processes developed in art that led to the formation of a type of mass culture with its inherent primitivism in depicting human relations. were born artistic styles in which the usual meaning of concepts and ideals shifted. Gone were the life-like opera and genre painting. Symbolist and futuristic poetry, music, painting, new ballet, theater, architectural modern. The beginning of the twentieth century was deposited on the library shelves with many high-quality examples of book art. In painting, the association "World of Art" was of great importance, which became artistic symbol borders of two centuries. A whole stage in the development of Russian painting is associated with him. A special place in the association was occupied by M.A. Vrubel, M.V. Nesterov and N.K. Roerich. An important feature of the development of the culture of the "Silver Age" is the powerful rise of the humanities.

In Russia at the beginning of the twentieth century there was a real cultural "renaissance". Russia experienced the flowering of poetry and philosophy, intense religious quests, mystical and occult moods. Religious quests are now recognized not only as not refuted by science, but even confirmed by it; Religion approaches art: religion is seen as its creative and aesthetic nature, and art appears as a symbolic language of religious and mystical revelations. The Russian religious and philosophical Renaissance, marked by a whole constellation of brilliant thinkers - N.A. Berdyaev, S.N. Bulgakov, D.S. Merezhkovsky, S.N. Trubetskoy, G.P. Fedotov, P.A. Florensky, S. L. Frank and others - largely determined the direction of development of culture, philosophy, ethics, not only in Russia, but also in the West. In the artistic culture of the Russian “Renaissance”, a unique combination of realistic traditions of the outgoing 19th century and new artistic trends took place. The "Silver Age" ended with a mass exodus of its creators from Russia. However, this did not destroy the great Russian culture, the development of which continued to mirror the contradictory trends in the history of the twentieth century.

Most importantly, Russia has enriched world culture with achievements in a wide variety of fields. Russian culture more and more reveals itself to the world and opens the world for itself.

Bibliography

2) Balakina T.I. "History of Russian culture", Moscow, "Az", 1996

3) Balmont K. Elementary words about symbolic poetry // Sokolov A.G. 2000

4) Berdyaev N.A. Philosophy of creativity, culture and art.1996

5) Kravchenko A.I. Textbook on cultural studies, 2004.

6) History and cultural studies. Tutorial ed. N.V. Shishkova. - M: Logos, 1999

7) Mikhailova M.V. Russian literary criticism late XIX - early XX century: reader, 2001

8) Rapatskaya L.A. "The Artistic Culture of Russia", Moscow, "Vlados", 1998.

9) Ronen Omri. The Silver Age as intent fiction // Materials and research on the history of Russian culture, - M., 2000, Issue 4

10) Yakovkina N.I. History of Russian culture of the XIX century. SPb.: Lan, 2000.

P.N. Zyryanov. History of Russia XIX-beginning of XX centuries, 1997.

A.S.Orlov, V.A.Georgiev. History of Russia from ancient times to the present day, 2000.

E.E. Vyazemsky, L.V. Zhukov. History of Russia from ancient times to the present day, 2005.