Spelling. Basic principles of Russian spelling
Graphics (gr graphicke from graphd "I write, I draw, I draw") -
1) the totality of all means of writing (all letters and auxiliary signs);
2) a section of linguistics that studies the relationship between graphemes and sounds
Letters specific language make up his alphabet
Alphabet (from the first two letters of the Greek alphabet alpha and beta, in the middle Greek pronunciation of vita) - a set of letters of some kind of phonographic letter, arranged in a historically established order
The synonymous names of the alphabet have the same motivation - the alphabet (the first letters of the Cyrillic alphabet are az and bee) and the alphabet (the first letters of the Ukrainian alphabet are a and be)
Nearly 75 percent of the population. Earth uses a letter-veno-sound script. There are now four families of alphabets: Latin (30 percent), Slavic (10 percent), Arabic (10 percent) and Indian (20 percent). The Latin family includes 70 alphabets: 30 European, 20 Asian and 20 African.
The ideal alphabet should have as many letters as there are sounds in speech, and each grapheme (letter) should denote only one sound, and each sound should have one grapheme. However, there are ideal forum alphabets. This is explained by the fact that, firstly, it is impossible to convey all the sounds of modern languages with 24 letters of the Greek and 25 Latin alphabets, and secondly, phonetic changes occur in all languages, and spelling remains traditional (in English language, say 46 phonemes and 26 letters). This contradiction to some extent eliminates the composite principle of graphics. So, in particular, in the Ukrainian language there are no special letters for soft vowels, but they are affected by the vowels i, u, is, and, which come after them. But even the composite principle cannot solve all the problems of graphics. In many charts, you have to resort to innovations: fr s (these are saddles), it (C (sharfes es), Danish 6, Polish I. However, this did not save the situation, which is why many charts use a ligature (from lat ligatura "connection") - a letter formed by a combination of elements of two letters (Serb l (Teacher), ib (n b), fr is (o e), Cyrillic u (and ou), kx (i a), c / (sh t ), diagraphs (ukr m tsch [s], English augh [o:], as well as letters with superscripts and letters with superscripts
(Belor v, German O, II, Polish s, s, z, Czech § b, z, c German the sound [f], regardless of position, can be denoted by the graphemes f, v, ph (f (wan "blіd"), [a] (affect "swallow"), [i] (climate "climate").
In relation to sounds, letters are:
1) unambiguous: rus ts, sh (they always denote solid sounds [ts] and [sh]);
2) ambiguous: ukr p, b, c, t, d, n, s, s, l, r (denoting hard and soft sounds);
3) denoting two sounds: I, yu, is, and (ravine, young, only, them), they can be called silabographems;
4) which do not indicate a sound: ukr, rus t, b
Spelling Principles of spelling
Spelling (vidgr orthos "correct" and grapho "I write") - 1) a system of identical spellings, historically developed, which is used in written speech, 2) a section of linguistics that studies and develops a system of rules that provide the same spelling of the same spelling.
The spelling of any language is based on certain principles. Spelling principles that determine the choice of one spelling where there are spellings, that is, where two or more different spellings are possible. Based on these principles, spelling rules are established.
depending on which principle is leading in designating the sound composition of words in a particular national orthography, they speak of the basic principle of this spelling system as a whole
There are four principles of spelling: phonetic, morphological, historical-traditional and ideographic
Phonetic principle
Its essence lies in the fact that words are written as they are pronounced
According to this principle, prefixes are written in Ukrainian from and s- (make, tear off, remove, but ask, subside, grab), as well as the words hot (it’s time to burn), black (Yor nun), Czech (por Czech) this (cf. . cordial), weekly (cf. week), etc. In Russian, according to the phonetic principle, prefixes are written on-z (-s) (to play, are weak-willed,. Toothless, weight, reward, extraordinary, but r. ASPIS, impotence, admire) vowels in suffixes after hissing under stress (snowball, hook). Some refer to the phonetic principle of spelling the spelling of words like gift, volume, day, etc., but here the background ethical principle does not work, because there is no choice: they are written according to their pronunciation and cannot be written in another way.
The phonetic principle is typical for Belarusian, Serbian and Croatian orthography. Por bilor of water, but a lack, heads, but a head, a table, but steel, a forest, but laces, springs, but. Viasna, sisters, but sistra; Serb, otats "father". OCA of the "father", eye to the "father" (vocative case; father "(nickname).
Ontologically, the phonetic principle is the first for all languages
Morphological principle
It is characterized by the same spelling of the same morpheme, regardless of its pronunciation in one position or another.
According to the morphological principle, the words struggle, laughs, fraternal, song, agency are written, where the same spelling of morphemes is preserved, despite the pronunciation [beard], [sm "Uetsya], [brothers], nya] [agency]. this principle, which, by the way, is the main one in it, words ending in a consonant are written, such as order, gender, friend, oak, rage (pronounced [seal] [dul], [rush]), the prefix c- (knock down , do, conspiracy; pronounced [sat "it"], [zdz *. lgt "], [zgbvgr]), unstressed vowels stn, stl,. Zdn,. ACC in the roots of words like happy, late, heart is thin.
Unlike Russian orthography, where the morphological principle of writing prevails, Ukrainian orthography is based on two principles - phonetic and morphological.
Historical-traditional principle
It lies in the fact that such spellings are preserved, which at the present stage have lost their motivation, i.e. words are spelled as they were once written, although such spelling does not correspond to either the sound of the word or its morphemic structures.
The traditional spellings in the Ukrainian language include spellings i, u, is, and, u to designate two sounds, preserving the doubling of consonants in foreign names (Holland, Russo, Watt) and writing i without doubling foreign common names (kassa, class, collective), as well as writing e and and in unstressed positions of such words as levada, plowshare, estuary, pocket skinny.
Significantly more traditional spellings in Russian. These include writing and after solid hissing (life, expanse, circus), soft sign after hard sibilants in nouns. Ш cancellation and in the forms of the second person singular of the present tense and the forms of the second person singular and plural imperative mood of verbs (rye, mouse, write, eat, cut), endings -th, -his in the genitive singular adjectives, lowercase numerals and some masculine and neuter pronouns (good, fifth, his, mine).
Lots of traditional spellings French, and for English orthography, the historical-traditional principle is the main one. So, let's say, now words like knight "knight" and night "night" are pronounced the same way.
Ideographic, or symbolic, principle
(it is also called differential spellings). Based on the semantic differences of similar spellings
So, for example, the Ukrainian language has the words company and campaign. The word company is used when it is necessary to express the meaning of "society", and the campaign, when the word has the meaning "a set of measures for the implementation of some important socio-political or economic task in a certain period" Various endings are written for the ideographic principle for different values in some words. For example: science (in music, in linguistics) and sound (in other senses), block (mechanism) and block (association), apparatus (device) and apparatus (institution; set of organs), organ (part of the body) and new organ ), center (in mathematics) and center (in other senses), original (eccentric) and original (primary source). This principle also substantiates the different spelling of a preposition with a noun and ononyms. Prisli penetrated (to the house and home, to meet and meet, from the side and from the side), writing a lowercase letter in common names and a capital one in their own (faith and. Faith, love and. Love, eagle and city. Eagle), as well as writing will take you and. You (with a capital letter. You are written in a case of underlined deference). In Russian, spellings burn (verb) and burn (noun), cry (order forms and verbs) and cry (noun_words) and cry (name) are determined by the differential principle.
In German, the capitalization of all nouns is based on this principle (cf.: leben "live" and das Leben "life", lesen "read" and das Lesen "reading", gut "kind" and das Gut "estate,. Ovar"). Examples of differential spelling include: Eeyore (article) and her "there, there" in French, di "say" and "I gave" - in Spanish; there, there" in French language, di "say" and "I gave" - in Spanish.
Some scholars single out the spelling of borrowed words as a separate principle, reflecting foreign spelling rules, that is, those cases based on practical transcription and transliteration: foye, rus iodine, yogurt, major, battalion,. Yemeni toscho.
Summarizing all that has been said, we emphasize that spelling has a special social significance. It affects the interests of the whole society and therefore is the subject of constant attention and concern for linguists, who deal with issues of the culture of speech.
Spelling
Spelling(from the Greek ortos - direct, correct and grapho - I write) - this is a system of rules that establish the uniformity of spellings that are mandatory for a given language. Spelling can also be called a branch of the science of language that studies the spelling of words at a certain stage in the development of this language.
Modern Russian orthography includes five sections:
1) the transfer by letters of the phonemic composition of words;
2) fused, separate and hyphenated (semi-fused) spellings;
3) the use of uppercase and lowercase letters;
4) ways of transferring words;
5) graphic abbreviations of words.
The rules for transmitting the sound side of speech through letter designations can be based on various principles. The principles of orthography are the basis on which the spellings of words and morphemes are based, given the choice of letters provided by graphics.
The spelling (from the Greek ortos - straight, correct and grámma - letter) is the correct spelling, which should be chosen from a number of possible ones. For example, in the word railway station spellings are letters O(may be spelled A), To(may be spelled G), l(possibly writing ll). Each of the five sections of orthography has specific spellings associated with it. So, for example, first, a certain letter in a word: we sweat And wO rox, offerO live And offerA walk and others, and secondly, continuous, separate and hyphenated (semi-continuous) spelling of words: slowly, in an embrace, in spring; third, uppercase and lowercase letters: motherland And motherland; Fourth, word wrap: sister And sister, to-throw And over-break: Fifth, graphic abbreviations: etc. (and so on), and etc. (and others), cm. (Look).
Russian writing, like the writing of most peoples of the world, is sound, that is, the meaning of speech in it is conveyed by conveying the sound side of the language by conventionally accepted graphic symbols - letters.
In writing, the sounds of the Russian language are transmitted through a certain number of letters, which together form an alphabet. The study of letters, as you know, is engaged in graphics. The spelling systems of the world differ in how they use the power of graphics. So, for example, certain difficulties may arise when, under different phonetic conditions, one letter (due to its ambiguity) denotes different sounds. Such a situation can arise under qualitative reduction (in the word rivers letter e denotes the sound [e], and in the word river by the same letter e the sound [and e] is indicated), as well as when stunning consonants at the absolute end of the word (in the word meadows letter G denotes the sound [g], and in the word meadow the same letter G denotes the sound [k]). In such cases, the choice of letters is determined by spelling rules. Thus, it is the spelling that regulates the spelling of a particular letter denoting a phoneme in a weak position.
In modern Russian, there are three principles of spelling: morphological (phonemic, phonemic, morphophonemic, phonemic-morphological), phonetic and historical (etymological, or traditional).
The morphological principle is the main, leading principle of Russian orthography. By tradition, this principle is called morphological, although it would be more correct to call it morphophonemic, since, firstly, the same letters of the alphabet designate a phoneme in all its modifications, and secondly, this principle ensures the same spelling of morphemes (prefixes, root, suffix and ending) regardless of their pronunciation, for example, the root -mor- is written the same way, regardless of position, in words sea, sea׳ y, sailor etc.
The following spelling rules are based on the morphological principle:
writing unstressed vowels, checked by stress: (in the roots of words: VO ׳ bottom - inO Yes׳ – VO diana - navO donation; in service morphemes: O׳ t-stranded And fight, wise׳ c And old man, on the table' And on the chair).
writing voiced and voiceless consonants at the end of a word ( luG – luG ah, luTo – luTo A) and at the root of the word before consonants ( laV ka-laV ok, fryd ka - fryingd OK);
writing checkable unpronounceable consonants ( Byzd ny - opozd at, lest ny - lest b);
writing prefixes on a consonant, excluding prefixes on h (OT give How OT catch, ond build How ond ache etc.);
letter usage yo after hissing in a stressed position in the roots of words, as well as in the suffixes of verbs and verbal words ( nightyo vka - nighte wat, shyo sweat - we to drink, to spityo vka - demarcatione vat);
writing hard and soft consonants in combination with soft consonants ( most ik - most , but insee and - insee Ouch);
writing unstressed endings of nouns, which are usually checked by the stressed endings of nouns of the same declension and in the same case form (cf.: in the village outside, in the park - in the saddle; in joy - in the steppe; sky - in a bucket, etc.).
The phonetic principle (or phonetic spellings) is that the spelling conveys the sound of the word, the letter in this case denotes not the phoneme, but the sound. Phonetic spellings are close to phonetic transcription (as you know, transcription is the transfer of sounding speech in writing).
The following spellings are based on the phonetic principle:
writing prefixes ending in h (from-, air-, vz-, bottom-, times-, roses-, without-, through-, through-) with letter With before voiceless consonants and with a letter h before all other consonants and before vowels ( publish - write, exalt - sing, get up - climb, overthrow - overthrow, distribute - distribute, wordless - impassability, emergency - striped);
writing a letter A in a shockless attachment times- (ras-), despite the fact that it is written under stress in this prefix O (distribution׳ t - distributed, painted׳ t - painting, story׳ call - ro׳ tell me races׳ pat - ro׳ rash);
writing a letter s after consonantal prefixes (excluding prefixes inter-, over- and borrowed prefixes) before the initial letter And root (cf .: background - search - super interesting). In addition, after solid consonants in complex abbreviated words, the letter and is preserved (medical institute, sports equipment);
writing a letter O in suffixes -onok -onka after hissing (bear cub, hat, etc.);
writing a letter s after c in the endings of nouns and adjectives ( streets, cucumbers, pale-faced, bird, Kunitsyn, etc.);
absence of a letter b in adjectives with the suffix -sk- formed from nouns ending in b(Mozyr - from Mozyr, brutal - from the beast; cf .: September - from September, December - from December).
Writing individual words (wedding - cf.: matchmaker, woo; hole - cf.: open; kalach - cf.: colo, etc.).
The traditional (historical) principle of Russian spelling is that this or that spelling is determined by the laws of the language at a certain stage of its historical development. IN modern language such spellings are preserved by tradition.
Traditional (historical) spellings include the following:
1) spelling of words (often borrowed) with unchecked unstressed vowels a, o, e, i, i (boots, laboratory, panorama, collective, sense of smell, vinaigrette, conductor, deficit, intellectual, confusion, month, hare etc.);
2) writing roots with alternating vowels a/o, e/i (dawn - illumination - dawns; tan - sunbathe - burn; touch - touch; bow - bow - declination; offer - attach - canopy; plant - sprout - grow - grown; skip - jump - jump; to collect - I will collect; run away - run away; to shine - to shine; unlock - unlock, spread - spread; wipe - wipe and etc.);
3) writing letters i, e after letters w, w And c(as you know, the sounds [zh], [sh] were soft until the 16th century, and [ts] - until the 11th century): six, tin, skis, width, dogrose, goal, whole, qualification, quote, circus and etc.
4) writing double consonants in the roots of borrowed words ( kilogram, coral, highway, baroque, antenna, assimilation and etc.);
5) writing a letter G in place of the sound [v] in the endings -oh, -his genitive case of adjectives and participles ( strong, blue, going and etc.);
6) writing a letter b after hard sizzling w, w in the endings of verbs of the 2nd person singular in the form of the indicative mood ( go, look, read) and in imperative mood forms ( eat, cut, spread). In addition, by tradition it is written b after hissing adverbs at the end, with the exception of words already, married, unbearable (just, completely, exactly, backwards, wide open and etc.);
7) spelling words with unchecked vowels in combinations oro, olo (milk, cow);
8) writing individual words ( backpack, asphalt, station and etc.) .
Differentiating (different) spellings explain the spelling of words and word forms that are different in meaning and related to homonyms. It is due to the presence of differentiating spellings that homonyms, homoforms, and homophones are distinguished. So, for example, writing letters A or O helps to understand the meaning of the words used ToA company"event" and ToO company(a group of people). The meaning of homonyms can differ by writing a single and a double letter: ball(holiday evening) and score(grade); uppercase and lowercase letters: Novel(male name) and novel(literary genre) Eagle(city) and eagle(bird), etc.
Differentiators include the following spellings:
1) the presence or absence of a letter b words with a stem in hissing (presence b for feminine words: daughter, oven, rye, power; absence b at the words male: guard, march, cloak);
2) writing letters O or yo to distinguish between nouns and verb word forms ( ohO g, podjO G- nouns and ohyo g, podjyo G– masculine past tense verbs);
3) writing some roots with alternating vowels, the choice of which is determined by the semantics of the word (cf .: dip a pen in ink - get wet in the rain; trim (make even) - leveled (made equal);
4) writing prefixes pre-, at- also depends on the semantics of the word (cf.: betray a friend - give shape, successor (follower) - receiver (apparatus));
5) writing endings -ohm, -th in the form of the instrumental case of the singular number of nouns on - ov, -in denoting the names of people and the names of settlements (cf .: with Sergey Borisov - with the city of Borisov);
6) writing b, b depends on the location of these letters in the word ( cf .: entrance, volume, pre-anniversary, immense - sparrows, bindweed, pouring, bench, on the bench);
7) some continuous, separate or hyphenated spellings, with the help of which the lexical and grammatical meanings of homonymous words are specified ( cf.: also(union) - Same(pronoun with a particle), because- an adverb or part of a conjunction from that- a pronoun with a preposition, etc.).
Although general rules are simple enough for separate writing (words in phrases and sentences are written separately from each other, and morphemes in a word are written together), there are many cases when it is difficult to make a choice: we have separate words or parts of words, for example: respected or deeply respected, no or nor any, bad weather or no weather etc.
Many spellings are very contradictory. Thus, there is still no single approach to writing adverbs, and they are sometimes written together, sometimes with a hyphen, sometimes separately (cf .: to the top - to failure, slowly - in spring). Nouns and adjectives of the same type are also spelled differently (cf.: checkpoint - checkpoint, national economic - people's democratic etc.).
Spelling- a branch of the science of language that studies the theoretical foundations of correct writing. Spelling is also a system of spelling rules. The rules of modern Russian spelling are reflected in the collection "Rules of Spelling" in 1956. This set of rules has been elevated to the rank of law. During the centuries of development, the system of writing norms has repeatedly changed. Several spelling reforms are known, the last of them was in 1956.
The basic concept of spelling is spelling. Spelling is a practical task of writing, the solution of which assumes a number of options, of which only one is correct. Otherwise, spelling is a spelling where it is possible to choose a letter to designate a sound. For example, in the word water to designate the sound [o], you can choose the letters o or a.
In solving a spelling problem, a system of reasoning is used. The system of reasoning is supposed to be the formulation of the spelling rule. spelling rule - practical recommendation, which includes the norm and conditions for its selection. So, to solve a practical problem, which letter should be written in the word water, the rule of an unstressed vowel in the root, checked by stress, is used.
Orthograms of the Russian language are divided into alphabetic and non-alphabetic. Letter orthograms are materially represented by letters. Non-alphabetic spellings are presented differently: a space (separate spelling), a hyphen (a graphic sign that connects parts of a word or individual words), a dash (indicating the transfer of a word from line to line), graphic abbreviations. Remember: a hyphen is a spelling mark, not to be confused with a dash - it is a punctuation mark.
Each rule in its structure reflects a certain theoretical regularity, otherwise: between individual rules, when they are compared, there is sometimes a similarity in reasoning.
Thus, each rule has a theoretical basis. Theoretical basis spelling rules formulated in the form of principles of Russian spelling.
The principle of Russian spelling is a theoretical idea or a theoretical law, the starting point underlying the spelling rule.
Spelling consists of five sections, according to which the type of spelling is distinguished.
1. Transfer by letters of the phonemic composition of the word. Letters denote sounds in the part that is not defined by graphics and alphabet. Yes, in a word city spelling has a place to designate only those sounds where there is a choice, i.e. unstressed vowel [o] and final consonant [d].
2. Use of uppercase and lowercase letters. For example, an eagle is a bird and an eagle is a city.
3. Fused, separate and semi-fused spellings. For example, on a new project, to live in a new way.
4. Moving words from one line to another. For example, marine (the suffix cannot be split when transferring to another line)
5. Graphic abbreviation of words. For example, the abbreviation page - p.
Each section has its own main principles.
Section 1 (transmission of sounds (phonemes) by letters) is built on morphological (phonemic) principle. essence morphological principle - the uniform spelling of morphemes in a word. Each morpheme (prefix, root, suffix, ending) is spelled the same, even if the sound composition is different. For example, we write the root city in the same way in different words and word forms: city [gor't], city [g'r / \ yes], city [g'r / \ ckoi].
Section 2 (the use of uppercase and lowercase letters) is associated with the nature of words and their position in speech. The main principle is lexico-syntactic.
Section 3 (fused, separate, semi-fused spellings) is based on the lexical-morphological principle. According to it, significant parts of the word are written together, words are separated, hyphenated spellings are introduced for transitional cases.
Section 4 is based on the morphemic-syllabic principle. When transferring a word from one line to another, the syllabic structure of the word and its morphemic structure are taken into account.
Section 5 is based on the alpha-sound principle. When graphic reduction takes into account the nature of sounds and letters. For example, a word cannot be abbreviated to a vowel.
The main part of the spelling belongs to the first section. Here is the largest mass of spelling rules. In addition, this section continues the alphabet and graphics, defining modern Russian writing, which is sound-letter. Other parts of orthography do not have such close contact with the alphabet and graphics.
The basic principle of the 1st section of spelling (morphological) is the principle of all spelling as a whole. Morphological principle is not the only one. The phonetic and historical (traditional) principle is also distinguished. The phonetic principle orients the letter to pronunciation. His basic rule: "write as you hear." historical principle seeks to preserve the spelling used previously. Its main rule: "write as you wrote before." It is inconvenient, because. focuses on memory and requires simple memorization. About 80% of spellings are based on the morphological principle, 15% on the traditional one, and 5% on the phonetic principle.
Let's look at each section in more detail.
Section 1 - letter designation of the phonemic composition of the word.
As we noted earlier, the designation of phonemes in writing is controlled not only by spelling, but also by the alphabet and graphics. But the graphics are engaged in the literal designation of phonemes (sounds) of strong positions. Spelling controls the sounds of weak positions. Moreover, spelling in the designation of sounds of weak positions is regulated by two types of rules:
Type 1 - the sounds of weak positions are indicated in the same way as the sounds of strong positions. For example, water - water, i.e. to select a letter we have to put the sound in a strong position
Type 2 - sounds of weak positions cannot be put in a strong position, cannot be checked and are indicated in dictionary order, i.e. are remembered. In such cases, a hyperphoneme appears.
The 1st type of rules is based on the morphological principle.
When writing roots, validation rules are most often used. When writing prefixes, suffixes and endings, the rules for checking are often not applied (although they are possible), it's just that the image of these morphemes is imprinted in our minds.
For example, the prefix c is spelled the same, although the sounds can be different: [s] twist, [h] give, [g] reap, [w] sew. But it is possible to apply the basic rule - to put the sound in a strong position (before the sonorant one): merge.
Thanks to the morphological principle, our writing is single and simple.
On morphological principle many rules are based: the spelling of unstressed vowels in the root, checked by stress, the spelling of checked and unpronounceable consonants in the root, the spelling of traditional prefixes, case endings of nouns, except for nouns on ij, ie, ia, etc.
Deviations from the morphological principle:
Phonetic principle A letter does not represent a phoneme, but a sound. It is based on the following rules:
Writing prefixes on z, s: through (s), from (s), times (s), woz (s), etc. - break / cut
Writing vowels in prefixes once / roses, races / rose - schedule / painting
Writing s instead of and after set-top boxes on TV. consonant - play / play
Writing about after sibilants and c in suffixes and endings of nouns. and adj., suffixes of adverbs - berezhok, beam, fighters, fresh. BUT: the spelling ё after hissing is fundamentally based on a morphological principle.
historical principle. It is based on the following rules:
Spelling zhi, shi;
Spelling ь after hissing - noun. 3 fold. zh.r. mouse, ch. 2l., unit you go, main turn. cut off
Spelling -th, -his in adj. endings. m.r., R.p., units - red
Vowel alternation in the roots of lie / lag, ros / rast, kos / kas, ber / bir, mok / poppy, clone / clan, etc.
Differential spellings.
Words that sound the same are spelled differently depending on the meaning or morphological affiliation.
Spelling of prefixes pre / at - stay (stay) - arrive (approach, arrive)
Spelling of different parts of speech that have a similar sound: crying (n.) - crying (ch. in verbal infl.), burn (n.) - burn (ch.)
Section 2 - the use of uppercase and lowercase letters.
It is based on two factors:
1. Highlighting the beginning of a sentence.
2. Highlighting proper names.
Proper names designate strictly certain titles inherent in single objects. Highlighting the letter with a capital letter aims to individualize them.
Difficulties in identifying proper names:
1. The transition of proper names into common nouns: manilov, oblomov. If with a positive assessment, then it is possible to save spellings with a capital letter: Platonov's own.
2. The transition of common nouns to proper ones. Words that are given a special meaning, great significance, are written with a capital letter: Peace, Equality.
Special cases of the use of capital letters:
1) the beginning of a poetic line
2) separate abbreviations: Moscow State University, Moscow Art Theater
3 section. Russian letter- a separate letter, i.e. all words are written separately. However, this was not always the case. Old Russian monuments writing did not know a separate letter. It was awkward to read. Only in the XVIII century. produced a separate letter. The spelling of this section is based on the lexico-morphological principle.
There are cases when it is difficult to distinguish: individual words in front of us or parts of a word: an enemy or not a friend, a place of residence or a place of residence.
For transitional cases, hyphens have been introduced. For example, particles (morphemes) are something, -or, -something that form indefinite pronouns or adverbs: somebody, somewhere.
The rules of this section are among the most difficult.
Difficulties in writing are associated with such phenomena:
1. Formation of compound words.
2. Transition of a noun with a preposition into an adverb.
3. The transition of a particle not into a prefix not.
Many of them are contradictory. This manifests itself in such cases, for example:
Adverbs are sometimes written together, sometimes separately: postpone until tomorrow / until tomorrow, in the dark / in the dark.
Compound nouns and adjectives are written differently: chief prosecutor, overtone; economic, people's democratic.
The disorder of the rules is connected with the unresolved problem of the word in linguistics.
4 section. Transfer rules are based on 2 principles: phonetic and morphemic.
Phonetic - transfer by syllables (se-stra,. Morphemic - transfer by morphemes (water). Sometimes they coincide (cover)
But the phonetic principle is limited to the morphemic one, which prohibits breaking significant parts of the word (morphemes): scout, smash.
5 section. Graphic abbreviations.
Type I - non-graphic abbreviations: compound words and abbreviations - salary, university.
Type II - graphic abbreviations: page - from, plant - factory
Reduction principles:
1. The initial part of the word cannot be omitted
2. At least 2 letters are omitted: city - mountains. or Mr.
3. You can not reduce to a vowel, y, ь and ъ.
Depending on the methods of forming abbreviated words, 6 types of graphic abbreviations are distinguished.
1. Spot. Formed by omitting part of the word and putting a dot: century - c.
Doubling one consonant letter while omitting the rest is used to indicate the plural: centuries (centuries), pp. (points)
2. Hyphens. Instead of the omitted middle part, a hyphen is put: plant - zd.
3. Oblique. Used in abbreviations: Railway- railway, correspondence department - s / o.
4. Cursive. Highlighted in a special font: cm, kg.
5. Zero. They don't stand out at all.
6. Combined. Different combinations of the first five types: revolutions per minute: rpm.
LEXICOLOGY
The lexical meaning of the word.
Spelling issues are primarily related to writing speech. Before characterizing the basic principles of Russian spelling, it is necessary to note its connections with such sections of the science of language as graphics, word formation, and morphology.
The spelling system of the Russian language is most closely connected with graphics - a section of linguistics that studies the letter system. graphics is a system of carved, drawn, written or printed signs used as a means of communication. Graphics of alphabetic writing, currently accepted by most peoples of the world. You can call the method of designating sounds with letters.
The basis of modern Russian graphics is the Cyrillic alphabet - the alphabet Old Church Slavonic. The Cyrillic alphabet was invented by the Greek missionary Cyril (Konstantin) in order to facilitate the preaching of Christianity in the South Slavic countries. The Cyrillic alphabet was based on Greek graphics, supplemented by some letters taken from other languages and adapted to the sounds of the ancient Bulgarian language. Cyrillic began to be used in manuscripts written in Russian, and then in printed books.
At the beginning of the 18th century, by order of Peter the Great, the so-called civil alphabet. Compared to Cyrillic, it is characterized by a simpler style of letters and the absence of a number of letters that had doublets in Cyrillic, for example, there were no big and small yus, Izhitsa, but doublet letters remained: e And yat, f And fita, octal and, and decimal, denoted as i. These doublets were eliminated as a result of the 1917 reform, which was largely a graphic reform.
Russian graphics developed on the basis of the Old Slavonic spelling and therefore, from the very beginning, diverged from the sound system of the Russian language. As a system, it begins to take shape in the 18th century, in the works of Trediakovsky, Sumarokov, Lomonosov. The development of the system continued in the 19th century in numerous works on Russian grammar (Vostokova, Buslaeva). It was finally brought into the system only in the works of Academician Grot, in particular in his work “ controversial issues Russian spelling. In 1917, the first reform of Russian spelling was carried out. To a certain extent, as already mentioned, it was a reform of graphics. In 1956, a new code was compiled - "Rules of Russian Spelling and Punctuation".
In 1996, in the journal Rusistika Segodnya, No. 1, an article by members of the Spelling Commission "On the Linguistic Substantiation of the Code of Russian Spelling Rules" was published, in which it was reported that the Institute of the Russian Language of the Russian Academy of Sciences had completed work on a new "Code of Russian Spelling Rules" .
The need for a new Code was caused, according to the authors, by the fact that the text of the rules of 1956 is outdated and in many respects does not correspond to the modern scientific understanding of a number of phenomena. In 2000, the Draft Code of Rules for Russian Spelling was published. Although the authors argued that the new edition of the Rules does not contain any changes affecting the basics of Russian writing, and will significantly simplify it, public opinion and the opinion of many authoritative Russianists was different. Spelling reform did not receive support. Premature and even illegal, according to many experts, was the new edition in 1999 of a new spelling dictionary edited by V.V. Lopatin, in which the proposed changes were fixed and took the form of a norm.
Thus, modern Russian spelling regulated by the Russian Spelling and Punctuation Rules of 1956. The word orthography consists of two Greek words: orthos (correct, straight) and grapho (writing), which means correct spelling. Spelling is a system of rules that establishes a uniform spelling of words and their forms. The leading principle of Russian spelling is morphological. It is based on the same display of morphemes in writing - significant parts of a word (roots, prefixes, suffixes, endings). For example, the root house- in all cases is indicated by these three letters, although in words home And brownie sound O roots are pronounced differently :d A machine, d b movoy. The same is observed in the attachment from-, spelled with a letter T despite her pronunciation: from start - from from combat is hell. The morphological principle is also implemented in suffixes: for example, adjectives linden ov oy and oak ov th have the same suffix ov- although he is unstressed in the first case.
Unstressed endings are marked in the same way as stressed endings, although unstressed vowels are pronounced differently: cf. . into the ground e, in the gallery e, underground to her and under the gallery to her, about hands e, about epochs e etc. The morphological principle of spelling is a valuable quality of Russian spelling: it helps to find related words, to establish the origin of certain words.
There are many deviations from the morphological principle in the language. These include phonetic and traditional spelling. For example, words house, poppy, ball, cat, mine, table, horse, heat, scrap, volume, yard etc. are spelled as they are pronounced. The phonetic principle is based on the spelling of prefixes ending in a consonant s-, without-, air-, from-, bottom-, through-, (through-). End sound [ h] of these prefixes before the deaf consonants of the root in oral speech is stunned, which is reflected in the letter. For example, be h toothy, but With cordial; in h strike, but With supply; And h drive, but With drink; neither h reject, but With walk; ra h beat but ra With to nag; chre h dimensional With stripe.
The traditional principle is based on the tradition of writing, that is, words are written as they were written in the old days: roots with alternation a/o, e/i . The traditional spelling is not justified either phonetically or morphologically. By tradition, words are written cow, dog, raspberry, carrot, sorcerer, giant, noodles, drum, feeling, holiday, viburnum etc. The spelling of such words has to be memorized. There are many borrowed words among the words with traditional spelling: acidophilus, color, component, intellectual, terrace, neat, opponent.
In the system of Russian spelling, a special place is occupied by differentiating writing. These are different spellings of similar-sounding words like score, score. The difference in spellings is due to the difference in meanings: score- grade, ball- evening. There are few cases of differentiated spelling in Russian: company(a group of people) and campaign(event), cry(noun) and cry(verb), burn(noun) and burn(verb) and some others.
Capitalization is also based on the meaning of the word. For example, unlike common nouns venerable(human), (warm) fur coat proper names are capitalized: Venerable ( surname), Fur coat(surname). In addition to these principles, the Russian spelling system uses the principle of continuous and separate spelling: words are written together, for example, garden, separately - phrases, for example, blindingly bright.
However, there are many cases in the language that are difficult to write. This is explained by the fact that, turning into words, some phrases are at different stages of lexicalization or fusion. Some of them have already become words and therefore are written together, for example, unused, unimportant, others are at an intermediate stage of lexicalization and therefore have semi-continuous spellings, for example, Prime Minister, chamber junker, others have recently embarked on the path of fusion and, therefore, are still subject to the rule of separate spelling of combinations, for example, to no avail, to failure, squatting, on the fly. Word hyphenation rules are not directly related to spelling, as they are caused by the need to place words on a line. But the chaotic breakdown of words during transfer makes reading difficult, and therefore it is recommended to transfer words by morphemes and syllables, for example, pre-reverent, for-no-ma-y, management.
covers a large group of words grammatical principle writing. It occurs where different spellings distinguish parts of speech, word forms. For example, b after hissing at the end of different parts of speech: cry(2 fold.), speech(3 fold.), creaky(cr. adj.), back(adverb), cherish(initial form of the verb), take(2 l., singular h., n. vr. verb), smear(imperative mood of the verb).
Thus, several principles can be traced in Russian orthography: phonetic, traditional, differentiating, grammatical, uppercase or lowercase, together or separately. The main principle of Russian orthography is morphological. You can check the spelling of a word using reference books or dictionaries, spelling, together, separately, hyphen, uppercase or lowercase. Besides spelling, the morphological principle has its own way of checking and applying the rule. It consists in determining what part of the word the letter is in, what part of speech the word belongs to, what rule this spelling is guided by.
Thus, the path of logical reasoning is as follows: letter - part of the word - part of speech - rule.
For example, enterprise And n And matel, highlighted letters, are questionable in spelling and can lead to errors. You should answer all the questions of the logical chain of reasoning and come to the correct answer. Letter And stands in a box at- meaning proximity, attachment, second letter And is at the root him-, this is the root of traditional spelling, it has an alternation him- / nya- at him at-at nya th.
Literate spelling of words consists of the ability to explain the spelling of a word using its composition, relation to the part of speech and spelling rule, or to consult in a dictionary, reference book. Improving spelling skills is an integral part of a person's written speech culture, which is necessary in business and professional communication.
Spelling principles- These are the patterns that underlie the spelling system. Each spelling principle combines a group of rules that are an application of this principle to specific linguistic phenomena.
Morphological principle consists in requiring the same spelling of the same morphemes: prefixes, roots, suffixes, etc. For example: steppe - steppe, rowan - pine, sign - signature, to the wound - to water. This principle is leading in Russian orthography; the spelling of most of the words is subordinated to him.
The phonetic principle is that the spelling must match the pronunciation. This principle of spelling is usually manifested when alternations are transmitted in the same morpheme, for example: paint - painting, homeless - ownerless.
Traditional principle lies in the fact that the spelling fixed by tradition is recognized as correct. This, for example, is the spelling of Russian and borrowed words with unchecked vowels, unchecked, unpronounceable or doubled consonants in the root: dog, ax, station, football, health, alley, etc. In school practice, words with unchecked vowels and consonants are called dictionary words.
differentiating principle spelling is implemented in situations where it is necessary to distinguish between spelling means equally sounding words: score (score) and ball (dance), burn (verb) and burn (noun), cry (verb) and cry (noun), ink (masculine noun) and ink (feminine noun), eagle (bird) , and Oryol (city).
In addition to those mentioned, in Russian orthography there are principles that regulate continuous, separate and hyphenated spelling, the use of capital letters, word hyphenation rules, etc.
Modern Russian orthography is based on several principles. The main one is the morphological principle, the essence of which in the following morpheme (the significant part of the word root, prefix, suffix, ending) retains a single letter spelling, although the sounds included in this morpheme may change during pronunciation. Thus, the root bread in all related words is written in the same way, but is pronounced differently depending on what place the vowel or consonant sounds occupy in the word, cf. [chl "ieba], [chl" bavos]; the prefix under- in the words file and knock out is the same, despite the different pronunciation, cf. [ptp "il" it"] [padb "it"]; adjectives mocking and boastful have the same suffix -liv-; unstressed ending and stressed are indicated the same in the table - in the book, big - great, blue - mine, etc. .P.
Guided by this very principle, we check the truth of a particular morpheme by selecting related words or changing the form of the word so that the Morpheme is in a strong position (under stress, before p, l, m, n, j, etc.), those. would be clearly marked.
The role of the morphological principle in orthography is great, if we bear in mind that the system of intramorphemic alternations, due to various reasons, is widely developed in the Russian language.
Along with the morphological principle, the phonetic principle also operates, according to which words or their parts are written as they are pronounced. For example, prefixes on z change depending on the quality of the consonant following the prefix before the voiced consonant, the letter z is heard and written in prefixes (without-, voz-, out-, bottom-, raz-, rose-, through-, through-), and before a deaf consonant in the same prefixes, the letter c is heard and written, cf. object - exclaim, beat - drink, overthrow - send down, etc.
By the operation of the phonetic principle the spelling of vowels o - ё after sibilants in suffixes and endings of different parts of speech is also explained, where the choice of the corresponding vowel depends on the stress, cf. a scrap - a knife, brocade - nomadic, a candle - a cloud, etc.
The root vowel, even after Russian prefixes to a consonant, passes into ы and is also indicated by this letter in accordance with the phonetic principle, i.e. it is written as it is heard and pronounced prehistory, pre-July, draw, play, etc.
Valid in our spelling also historical or traditional principle, according to which words are written the way they were written before, in the old days. So, the spelling of vowels and, a, u after hissing is an echo of the ancient state of the phonetic system of the Russian language. The same principle is used to write dictionary words, as well as borrowed ones. Such spellings can be explained only with the involvement of the historical laws of the development of the language as a whole.
Exists in modern orthography and The principle of differentiated writing(semantic principle), according to which words are written depending on their lexical meaning, cf. burn (verb) and burn (noun), company (group of people) and campaign (any event), ball (dance party) and score (unit of assessment).
In addition to those named in spelling, it is necessary to note the principle of continuous, hyphenated and separate spelling of complex words, we write together or with a hyphen, and combinations of words - separately.
Summing up, we can say that the variety of Russian spelling rules is explained, on the one hand, by the peculiarities of the phonetic and grammatical structure of the Russian language, the specifics of its development, and, on the other hand, by interaction with other languages, both Slavic and non-Slavic. The result of the latter is a large number of words of non-Russian origin, the spelling of which has to be memorized.
