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Borrowings from the Russian language in the English vocabulary. English words borrowed from other languages

Having a foreign language origin, but used in oral or written speech by people speaking. The reasons for borrowing words from other languages can be divided into external and internal.

External causes include situations when some object, previously unknown to this people, was introduced into the everyday life of the people. Together with the subject, its name also “came”, for example, such things as a drum, a cauldron, an iPad came into our life along with.

Another external cause borrowing was the use of a foreign word to denote some specific object or phenomenon, if it was impossible to find an exact analogue in the language or it turned out to be too cumbersome. So, when creating the first theaters in Russia, the very word "theater" was borrowed, replacing the original Russian word“disgrace”, denoting a spectacle, a performance in general, and over time, it changed its meaning.

The internal reasons for borrowing include the need to name a phenomenon or object that has a descriptive counterpart in Russian, for example, “cruise” instead of “a trip that involves visiting several settlements starting and ending at the same point. In addition, words are borrowed that have a similar grammatical structure with those already familiar. So, to the words borrowed in the 19th century, policeman and gentleman, such later borrowings as businessman, yachtsman, were easily and organically “added”. And, finally, at a certain period of history, it becomes fashionable to use foreign words. So, in modern society, words such as “security” instead of “guard”, “teenager” instead of “teenager”, etc. are actively used.

What languages are the words borrowed from?

IN different eras most actively borrowed words from different languages cultures. It depended on which countries and peoples Russia had at that time historical period the most developed cultural and economic ties.

In the pre-Christian era, borrowings from related languages were most widespread. Slavic peoples, with which the Rus tribes were actively trading, and sometimes fought. So, borrowings from the languages of other Slavic peoples, as well as from Turkic languages.

A separate group consisted of the so-called Old Slavonicisms - words taken from the Old Slavonic written language used for Orthodox services and recordings of theological texts. Their "arrival" in the Russian language is associated with the adoption of Christianity.

During the development of science, words borrowed from Latin and Greek were actively used. This is explained by the fact that most medieval Western texts of scientific content were written precisely. And Latin, in turn, actively used the earlier Greek terminology.

After the 17th century, when Russia began to conduct active trade and cultural exchange with countries Western Europe, words from German and French began to come into the Russian language in large numbers. These were military, trade, art history and scientific terms, as well as words that reflected the changed life of the nobility. And if at first borrowings from German language, then to XIX century most loanwords have French origin. And this is not surprising: sometimes in the upper strata of society they were more fluent in French than in their native Russian.

IN Lately Most of the borrowings come into Russian from the English language. English is currently one of the most common languages of interethnic communication, so the process of English-language borrowings is historically natural.

Disbursed and undisbursed borrowings

Many words that came from other languages are already perceived by Russian speakers as "native". Sometimes the information that the words "notebook" or "sarafan" are borrowed is surprising. Such borrowed funds are called assimilated.

In addition to them, there are also so-called undeveloped borrowings. These include words denoting objects and phenomena that are not characteristic of Russian culture (exoticisms), foreign-language blotches, which sometimes retained foreign spelling or are recorded, but are not amenable to general rules changes in Russian words, as well as internationalisms, i.e. words that sound the same in many unrelated languages.

Examples of loanwords: guest worker, motel, confetti, olivier, jam, latte, bulldozer. See dictionaries for more examples. foreign words L.P. Krysina, N.G. Komleva.

Borrowing words

The reasons for borrowing words from other languages are related to technical and technological progress - the emergence of new technologies, inventions, objects, concepts in the world, for which there are no words in the Russian language.

When borrowing, other people's words undergo phonetic, morphological, morphemic and semantic changes. This is due to the “adjustment” of borrowing words to the established features and rules in the Russian language. Individual authors school textbooks in Russian, the concepts of a borrowed and a foreign word are separated. If a borrowed word comes into the vocabulary of the Russian language with changes, then a foreign word undergoes almost no changes, retaining its original phonetic, morphological and other features.

There are a lot of borrowed words in modern Russian. Most of them are deeply rooted in the Russian language, and for modern native speakers, the words are perceived as native Russian. Their true origin is shown by an etymological analysis.

The process of borrowing words began in Old Russian and is currently happening. Words were borrowed from Latin, Finno-Ugric, Greek, Turkic, Polish, Dutch, German, French, and English. People's names were borrowed geographical names, names of months, church terms. Some borrowed words have become obsolete: blubber, Berkovets, tiun, grid, golbets and others.

Borrowing morphemes

Not only whole words are borrowed into the Russian language, but also parts of words (morphemes) that affect word formation and give birth to new words. We list some foreign prefixes and foreign suffixes, for each item we give examples of words.

Borrowing prefixes

a- - immoral, amorphous, apolitical, arrhythmia, anonymous, apathy, atheist.
anti- - antiworld, anticyclone, antithesis.
archi- - archival, arch-millionaire, archbishop.
pan-pan-American, pan-Slavism, pan-epidemic.
de- - deheroization, degradation, decomposition, dismantling, demobilization, demotivation.
dis- -disinfection, disorientation, disorganization.
dis- - disharmony, disqualification, disproportion, dysfunction.
dis- - disassociation, disjunction.
counter-counterattack, countermarch, counteroffensive, counterrevolution, counterstrike.
trans- - transatlantic, trans-European, trans-regional.
ultra-ultrasound, ultrashort, ultra-left, far-right, trendy.
and others...

Borrowing suffixes

-ism - anarchism, collectivism, communism.
ist - scuba diver, careerist, machinist, parachutist.
-izirov- - militarize, mechanize, fantasize.
-er- - poacher, gentleman, trainee, boyfriend.
and others...

Borrowing foreign words contributes to the development of the language. Borrowing is associated with close communication between the peoples of the world, a developed system of communications, the presence of international professional communities, etc.

Everyone knows that cultural contacts with neighbors are vital for the normal development of any nation. Mutual enrichment of vocabulary, borrowing words, terms and even names are inevitable. As a rule, they are useful for the language: the use of the missing word allows you to avoid descriptive phrases, the language becomes simpler and more dynamic. For example, a long phrase "trade in a certain place once a year" in Russian is successfully replaced by the word that came from the German language fair. IN modern Russia Unfortunately, one often has to deal with the illegal and unjustified use of foreign words in everyday speech. all sorts of shops, consulting, marketing and leasing literally litter the Russian language, by no means decorating it. However, it should be recognized that sweeping prohibitions can harm its normal development. In the article brought to your attention, we will talk about the successful use of foreign words and terms.

Let's start with terms that are close and familiar to any teacher of the Russian language and literature. Word poetry has become so firmly established in our language that we no longer think about its meaning. However, in Greek it means "creation". Word poem translates as "Creation", A rhyme – "proportionality","consistency", the word rhythm is the same root to it. Stanza translated from Greek "turn", A epithet – "figurative definition".

WITH Ancient Greece related terms such as epic ("collection of stories"), myth(word, speech),drama ("action"), lyrics(from the word musical), elegy("the mournful tune of the flute"), Oh yeah ("song"),epithalamus("wedding poem or song"),epic ("word", "story", "song"), tragedy ("goat song"), comedy("bear holidays"). The name of the latter genre is associated with holidays in honor of Greek goddess Artemis, who coped in March. This month, the bears came out of hibernation, which gave the name to these performances. well and scene- of course, "tent" where the actors performed. Concerning parodies, that is - "singing inside out" .

If the Greeks took upon themselves the "duty" of naming poetic and theatrical terms, then the Romans took prose seriously. Latin connoisseurs will tell us that this short word can be translated into Russian with the phrase "purposeful speech." The Romans generally liked precise and short definitions. No wonder it was from the Latin language that the word came to us lapidary, i.e. "carved in stone" (short, concise). Word text means "connection", "compound", A illustration – "explanation"(to the text). Legend- This "what needs to be read",memorandum – "things to remember", A opus– "work", "work". Word plot translated from Latin means "story", "tale", but it came to Russian from German with the meaning "plot". Manuscript- This handwritten document, well and editor- This a person who has to "put everything in order". Madrigal- also a Latin word, it comes from the root "mother" and means song in native, "mother" language. To finish with literary terms, say that Scandinavian word runes originally meant "all knowledge", Then - "secret" and only later began to be used in the meaning letters, letters.

But back to the Romans, who, as you know, developed a unique set of laws for that time (Roman law) and enriched world culture many legal terms. For example, justice ("fairness", "lawfulness"), alibi ("in the other place"), verdict ("truth spoken"), advocate(from Latin "call"), notary– ("scribe"),protocol("first leaf"), visa ("viewed") etc. Words version("turn") And intrigue ("confuse") is also of Latin origin. The Romans coined the word blunder – "fall", "mistake", "wrong step". Greek and Latin origin has the majority medical terms. As an example of borrowing from Greek you can use words like anatomy("dissection"), agony ("struggle"), hormone ("set in motion"), diagnosis("definition"), diet ("lifestyle", "mode"), paroxysm ("irritation"). The following terms are Latin in origin: hospital("hospitable"), immunity ("liberation from something"),disabled person ("powerless", "weak"), invasion ("attack"),muscle ("mouse"), obstruction ("blockage"),obliteration ("destruction"), pulse ("push").

At present, Latin is the language of science and serves as a source for the formation of new words and terms that never existed. For example, allergy – "another action"(the term was coined by the Austrian pediatrician K. Pirke). Christianity, as you know, came to us from Byzantium, whose inhabitants, although they called themselves Romans (Romans), spoke mainly Greek. Along with the new religion, many new words came to our country, some of which were sometimes represented by tracing paper - a literal translation of Greek terms. For example, the word enthusiasm ("divine inspiration") on Old Slavonic language was translated as "rage"(!). This interpretation was not accepted by the language. More often, new terms were adopted without change. The original meaning of many of them has long been forgotten, and few people know that angel- This "herald", apostle –"messenger",clergy – "lot", icon case – "box", liturgy – "duty", deacon –"servant", bishop– "seeing from above", A sexton– "watchman". Word hero also Greek and means "saint"- no more, no less! But the word that has become abusive filthy came to us from the Latin language and means only "rural"(inhabitant). The fact is that pagan cults were especially tenacious in rural areas, as a result, this word became synonymous with pagan. Foreign in origin are also the words that are called representatives underworld. Word daemon "deity", "spirit". It is known that Mikhail Vrubel did not want the demon depicted in his paintings to be confused with the devil or the devil: “Demon means “soul” and personifies eternal struggle the restless human spirit, seeking reconciliation of the passions that overwhelm him, the knowledge of life and not finding an answer to his doubts either on earth or in heaven, This is how he explained his position. What do the words devil and devil mean? Crap- this is not a name, but an epithet ( "horned"). Devil same - "deceiver", "slanderer"(Greek). Other names for the devil are of Hebrew origin: Satan – "opposite", "adversary", Belial- from the phrase "useless". Name Mephistopheles invented by Goethe, but it is composed of two Hebrew words - "liar" and "destroyer". And here is the name Woland, which M.A. Bulgakov used in his famous novel"Master and Margarita", is of Germanic origin: in medieval German dialects it meant "deceiver", "rogue". In Goethe's Faust, Mephistopheles is once mentioned under this name.

Word fairy is of Latin origin and means "fate". The Welsh believed that fairies were descended from pagan priestesses, while the Scots and Irish believed that they were from angels seduced by the devil. However, despite the centuries-old domination of Christianity, Europeans still treat fairies and elves with sympathy, calling them " good people and "peaceful neighbors".

Word dwarf invented by Paracelsus. In Greek it means "inhabitant of the earth". In Scandinavian mythology, such creatures were called "dark elves" or "zwerg". brownie in Germany is called "kobold". Later this name was given to a metal that had "bad character", - made it difficult to smelt copper. Nickel called elf living by the water, a big fan of jokes. This name was given to a metal similar to silver.

Word the Dragon in Greek means "sharp seeing". Interestingly, in China it is mythological creature traditionally depicted without eyes. The legend tells that one artist of the Tang era (IX century) got carried away and painted the eyes of a dragon: the room was filled with fog, there was thunder, the dragon came to life and flew away. And the word Hurricane comes from the name of the god of fear of the South American Indians - Huracana. The names of some precious and semi-precious stones also have their own meaning. Sometimes the name indicates the color of the stone. For example, ruby – "red"(lat.), chrysolite – "golden"(Greek), olevin – "green"(Greek), lapis lazuli– "sky blue"(Greek), etc. But sometimes their name is associated with certain properties that were attributed to these stones in antiquity. So, amethyst translated from Greek as "not drunk": according to legends, this stone is able to "curb passions", therefore Christian priests often use it to decorate vestments, insert it into crosses. For this reason, amethyst has another name - "bishop's stone." And the word agate in Greek means "good", which he had to bring to his owner.

There were cases when the same word came to our country from different languages and different time, resulting in different meanings. For example, words colossus, machination and machine- single root. Two of them came to us directly from the Greek language. One of them means "something huge", other - "trick". But the third came through Western European languages and is a technical term.

Sometimes words are formed as a result of combining roots belonging to different languages. For example: word abracadabra contains a Greek root with the meaning "deity" and Hebrew with the meaning "word". That is "word of God"- an expression or phrase that seems meaningless to the uninitiated.

And the word snob interesting because, being Latin in origin, it appeared in England at the end of the 18th century. It originated from latin expression sine nobilitas ( "no nobility"), which was reduced to s. nob.: so on English ships passengers who did not have the right to dine with the captain began to be called. Later, in English houses, this word was placed on the guest lists opposite persons who should have been announced without a title.

But what about other languages? Did they contribute to the Russian vocabulary? The answer to this question is clearly in the affirmative. There are many examples. So, the Arabic phrase "lord of the sea" became a Russian word admiral.

Fabric name atlas translated from Arabic means "beautiful", "smooth".cabal- This "receipt", "commitment",shackles – "fetters", "fetters" etc. Long been perceived as Russian Turkic words scribble ("black or bad hand") And peanut ("like a watermelon"). About the antiquity of the word iron evidence of its Sanskrit origin ( "metal", "ore"). Weight- This "heavy"(Persian), stage –"platform"(Spanish), coat of arms – "inheritance"(Polish). Words bank(from "put the ship on its side") And yacht(from "drive") are of Dutch origin. Words rush ("top everything"– over all), bluff("deception"), velveteen("velvet") came to Russia from England. The last word it is interesting because it is a “false friend of the translator”: readers have probably been surprised more than once that at receptions and balls, kings and court ladies flaunt in velvet suits and dresses. The words came from the German language cabin boy("boy"), tie("scarf"), vane ("wing"), flask ("bottle"), Workbench ("workshop"). There are a lot of borrowings from Italian and French. For example, trampoline("hit"),career("run"), feint ("pretense", "fiction"), stamp ("seal"), relay race ("stirrup") are Italian. scam ("case"), gauze ("Kiseya"), balance ("scales"),compliment("Hello"), negligee ("negligence") are French.

Italian and French have given life to so many musical and theatrical terms. Here are some of them. Italian word conservatory("shelter") recalls the decision of the Venice authorities to turn 4 convents into music schools(XVIII century). Virtuoso means "valor", word cantata derived from Italian kantare –"sing", capriccio- from the word "goat"(a work with a galloping, “like a goat”, change of themes and moods), opera –"composition", tutti – "performing by the whole team".

Now it's France's turn: arrangement – "tidying up", overture from the word "open", benefit – "profit", "benefit", repertoire– "scroll", decoration –"decoration", pointe shoes(solid toe ballet shoes) - "point", "tip",divertissement– "entertainment", foyer – "hearth". And in modern pop music very popular word plywood which comes from the German "impose"(voice to already recorded music).

Speaking of borrowing from French, you can not ignore the culinary theme. Yes, the word garnish derived from French "to equip", "to equip".Glace- Means "frozen", "icy". Cutlet – "rib". Consomme – "bouillon".Langet – "tongue". Marinade– "put in salt water". Roll- from the word "clotting". Word the vinaigrette– exception: being French in origin (from vinaigre – "vinegar"), it appeared in Russia. All over the world this dish is called "Russian salad".

It is interesting that many dog names popular in our country have a foreign origin. The fact is that peasants in Russian villages could not often afford to keep a dog. The landlords, on the other hand, often kept dozens and even hundreds of hunting dogs on their country estates (and even took bribes with “borzoi puppies”) and several lap dogs in city houses. Since the Russian nobles knew French (and later English) better than their native language, they gave foreign names to their dogs. Some of them are widely spread among the people. What familiar word could be heard by a peasant who did not know French, nicknamed Cheri ("Cutie")? Of course, Ball! Trezor translated into Russian means "treasure"(French), nickname watchdog descended from French word"bearded", A Rex- This "tsar"(lat.). A number of nicknames are derived from foreign names. For example, Bobik and Tobik- these are variants of Russian adaptation English nameBobby,Bug and Julie descended from Julia. And the nicknames Jim and Jack do not even try to hide their foreign origin.

But what about the great and mighty Russian language? Did he contribute to the development of foreign languages? It turns out that the Russian word has entered many languages \u200b\u200bof the world man. Word grandmother in English is used in the meaning "women's headscarf", A pancakes in Britain is called small round sandwiches. Word vulgarity entered the dictionary in English because V. Nabokov, who wrote in this language, having despaired of finding its full-fledged analogue, decided to leave it without translation in one of his novels.

Words satellite And comrade known all over the world and kalashnikov for a foreigner - not a surname, but the name of a Russian machine gun. Relatively recently, the now somewhat forgotten terms made a triumphal procession around the world perestroika and glasnost. Words vodka, matryoshka and balalaika are used so often and out of place by foreigners talking about Russia that they cause irritation. But for the word pogrom, which has entered the dictionaries of many European languages in 1903, frankly ashamed. Words intelligentsia(author - P. Boborykin) and disinformation are not Russian "by origin", but they were invented precisely in Russia. From the Russian language that became their "native" language, they passed into many foreign languages and became widespread throughout the world.

In modern Russia, unfortunately, one often has to deal with the illegal and unjustified use of foreign words in everyday speech ...

Everyone knows that cultural contacts with neighbors are vital for the normal development of any nation. Mutual enrichment of vocabulary, borrowing words, terms and even names are inevitable. As a rule, they are useful for the language: the use of the missing word allows you to avoid descriptive phrases, the language becomes simpler and more dynamic. For example, the long phrase “trade in a certain place once a year” in Russian is successfully replaced by the word fair that came from the German language. In modern Russia, unfortunately, one often has to deal with the illegal and unjustified use of foreign words in everyday speech. All sorts of shops, consulting, marketing and leasing literally litter the Russian language without decorating it. However, it should be recognized that sweeping prohibitions can harm its normal development. In the article brought to your attention, we will talk about the successful use of foreign words and terms.

***
Let's start with terms that are close and familiar to any teacher of the Russian language and literature. The word poetry has become so firmly established in our language that we no longer even think about its meaning. And meanwhile, in translation from Greek, it means "creativity." The word poem is translated as "creation", and rhyme - "proportion", "consistency", the word rhythm is the same root to it. The stanza in Greek means “turn”, and the epithet is “figurative definition”.

Such terms as epic (“collection of legends”), myth (“word”, “speech”), drama (“action”), lyrics (from the word musical), elegy (“mournful tune of a flute”) are also associated with Ancient Greece. , ode (“song”), epithalama (“wedding poem or song”), epic (“word”, “story”, “song”), tragedy (“goat song”), comedy (“bear holidays”). The name of the latter genre is associated with the holidays in honor of the Greek goddess Artemis, which were celebrated in March. This month, the bears came out of hibernation, which gave the name to these performances. Well, the stage is, of course, the “tent”, where the actors performed. As far as parody is concerned, it is “singing inside out”.

***
Whereas the Greeks took upon themselves the "duty" of naming poetic and theatrical terms, the Romans took up prose in earnest. Latin connoisseurs will tell us that this short word can be translated into Russian with the phrase "purposeful speech." The Romans generally liked precise and short definitions. It is not for nothing that the word lapidary came to us from the Latin language, i.e. "carved in stone" (short, concise). The word text means “connection”, “connection”, and the illustration means “explanation” (to the text). A legend is “what should be read”, a memorandum is “what should be remembered”, and an opus is “work”, “work”. The word fabula in Latin means "story", "tale", but in Russian it came from German with the meaning "plot". A manuscript is a document “written by hand”, but an editor is a person who must “put everything in order”. Madrigal is also a Latin word, it comes from the root "mother" and means a song in the native, "mother" language. To finish with literary terms, let's say that the Scandinavian word runes originally meant "all knowledge", then - "mystery" and only later began to be used in the meaning of "writing", "letters".

But let's get back to the Romans, who, as you know, developed a unique set of laws for that time (Roman law) and enriched the world culture with many legal terms. For example, justice (“justice”, “legality”), alibi (“in another place”), verdict (“truth is spoken”), lawyer (from the Latin “I call”), notary - (“scribe”), protocol (“ first page”), visa (“viewed”), etc. The words version ("turn") and intrigue ("to confuse") are also of Latin origin. The Romans, on the other hand, came up with the word blunder - “fall”, “mistake”, “wrong step”. Most medical terms are of Greek and Latin origin. As an example of borrowings from the Greek language, one can cite such words as anatomy (“dissection”), agony (“struggle”), hormone (“I set in motion”), diagnosis (“definition”), diet (“lifestyle”, "mode"), paroxysm ("irritation"). The following terms are Latin in origin: hospital (“hospitable”), immunity (“liberation from something”), invalid (“powerless”, “weak”), invasion (“attack”), muscle (“mouse”), obstruction ("blockage"), obliteration ("destruction"), pulse ("push").

At present, Latin is the language of science and serves as a source for the formation of new words and terms that never existed. For example, allergy is “another action” (the term was coined by the Austrian pediatrician K. Pirke). Christianity, as you know, came to us from Byzantium, whose inhabitants, although they called themselves Romans (Romans), spoke mainly Greek. Along with the new religion, many new words came to our country, some of which were sometimes represented by tracing paper - a literal translation of Greek terms. For example, the word enthusiasm (“divine inspiration”) was translated into Old Slavonic as “possession” (!). This interpretation was not accepted by the language. More often, new terms were adopted without change. The original meaning of many of them has long been forgotten, and few people know that an angel is a “messenger”, an apostle is a “messenger”, a clergy is a “lot”, an icon case is a “box”, a liturgy is a “duty”, a deacon is a “servant” , the bishop is “looking from above”, and the sexton is “watchman”. The word hero is also Greek and means "holy" - no more, no less! But the word filthy, which has become abusive, came to us from the Latin language and means only “rural” (resident). The fact is that pagan cults were especially tenacious in rural areas, as a result, this word became synonymous with pagan. Foreign in origin are also the words that are called representatives of the other world. The word demon in Greek means "deity", "spirit". It is known that Mikhail Vrubel did not want the demon depicted in his paintings to be confused with the devil or the devil: “Demon means“ soul ”and personifies the eternal struggle of the restless human spirit, seeking reconciliation of the passions that overwhelm him, knowledge of life and not finding an answer to his doubts neither on earth nor in heaven – this is how he explained his position. What do the words devil and devil mean? Damn is not a name, but an epithet (“horned”). The devil is “seducer”, “slanderer” (Greek). Other names of the devil are of Hebrew origin: Satan - "contradictory", "adversary", Belial - from the phrase "without benefit." The name Mephistopheles was invented by Goethe, but it is made up of two Hebrew words - “liar” and “destroyer”. But the name Woland, which M.A. Bulgakov used in his famous novel The Master and Margarita, it is of Germanic origin: in medieval German dialects it meant "deceiver", "rogue". In Goethe's Faust, Mephistopheles is once mentioned under this name.

The word fairy is of Latin origin and means "fate". The Welsh believed that fairies were descended from pagan priestesses, while the Scots and Irish believed that they were from angels seduced by the devil. However, despite the centuries-old domination of Christianity, Europeans still treat fairies and elves with sympathy, calling them "good people" and "peaceful neighbors."

The word dwarf was coined by Paracelsus. In Greek, it means "inhabitant of the earth." In Scandinavian mythology, such creatures were called "dark elves" or "zwerg". Brownie in Germany is called a "kobold". Later, this name was given to a metal that had a "harmful character" - it made it difficult to smelt copper. Nickel was the name of an elf living by the water, a great lover of jokes. This name was given to a metal similar to silver.

The word dragon in Greek means "sharp seeing". Interestingly, in China, this mythological creature was traditionally depicted without eyes. The legend tells that one artist of the Tang era (IX century) got carried away and painted the eyes of a dragon: the room was filled with fog, there was thunder, the dragon came to life and flew away. And the word hurricane comes from the name of the god of fear of the South American Indians - Huracan. The names of some precious and semi-precious stones also have their own meaning. Sometimes the name indicates the color of the stone. For example, ruby is “red” (Latin), chrysolite is “golden” (Greek), olevin is “green” (Greek), lapis lazuli is “sky blue” (Greek), etc. But sometimes their name is associated with certain properties that were attributed to these stones in antiquity. So, amethyst is translated from Greek as “non-drunk”: according to legends, this stone is able to “curb passions”, therefore Christian priests often use it to decorate vestments, insert it into crosses. For this reason, amethyst has another name - "bishop's stone." And the word agate in Greek means "good", which he was supposed to bring to his owner.

There were cases when the same word came to our country from different languages and at different times, resulting in different meanings. For example, the words colossus, machination and machine have the same root. Two of them came to us directly from the Greek language. One of them means "something huge", the other - "trick". But the third came through Western European languages and is a technical term.

Sometimes words are formed as a result of combining roots belonging to different languages. For example: the word abracadabra contains a Greek root meaning "deity" and a Hebrew root meaning "word". That is, "the word of God" is an expression or phrase that seems meaningless to the uninitiated.

And the word snob is interesting because, being Latin in origin, it appeared in England at the end of the 18th century. It came from the Latin expression sine nobilitas ("without nobility"), which was shortened to s. nob.: this is how passengers on English ships began to be called who did not have the right to dine with the captain. Later, in English houses, this word was placed on the guest lists opposite persons who should have been announced without a title.

***
But what about other languages? Did they contribute to the Russian vocabulary? The answer to this question is clearly in the affirmative. There are many examples.

So, the Arabic phrase "lord of the sea" became the Russian word admiral.

The name of the fabric satin in Arabic means "beautiful", "smooth". Bondage is a “receipt”, “obligation”, shackles are “fetters”, “fetters”, etc. It has long been perceived as Russian Turkic words doodle ("black or bad hand") and karapuz ("like a watermelon"). The antiquity of the word iron is evidenced by its Sanskrit origin (“metal”, “ore”). The kettlebell is “heavy” (Persian), the stage is “scaffold” (Spanish), the coat of arms is “inheritance” (Polish). The words roll (from "to put the ship on its side") and yacht (from "to drive") are of Dutch origin. The words avral (“up all” - over all), bluff (“deception”), velveteen (“velvet”) came to Russia from England. The last word is interesting because it is a “false friend of the translator”: readers have probably been surprised more than once that at receptions and balls, kings and court ladies flaunt in velvet suits and dresses. From the German language came the words jung ("boy"), tie ("scarf"), weather vane ("wing"), flask ("bottle"), workbench ("workshop"). There are a lot of borrowings from Italian and French. For example, a trampoline (“hit”), a quarry (“running”), a feint (“pretense”, “fiction”), a stamp (“seal”), a relay race (“stirrup”) are Italian. Scam ("case"), gauze ("muslin"), balance ("scales"), compliment ("hello"), negligee ("negligence") - French.

Italian and French have given life to so many musical and theatrical terms. Here are some of them. The Italian word conservatory ("shelter") recalls the decision of the authorities of Venice to turn 4 convents into music schools (XVIII century). Virtuoso means "valor", the word cantata is derived from the Italian cantare - "sing", capriccio - from the word "goat" (a work with a galloping, "like a goat", a change of themes and moods), opera - "composition", tutti - " performance by the whole team.

Now it's France's turn: arrangement - "bringing in order", overture from the word "open", benefit performance - "profit", "benefit", repertoire - "list", decoration - "decoration", pointe shoes (hard socks of ballet shoes) - " point”, “tip”, divertissement - “entertainment”, foyer - “hearth”. And in modern pop music, the word plywood is very popular, which comes from the German “overlay” (voice over already recorded music).

Speaking of borrowing from the French language, one cannot ignore the culinary theme. So, the word garnish comes from the French "to supply", "equip". Glace means “frozen”, “icy”. Cutlet - "rib". Consomme - "broth". Langet - "tongue". Marinade - "put in salt water." Roll - from the word "folding". The word vinaigrette is an exception: being French in origin (from vinaigre - "vinegar"), it appeared in Russia. All over the world, this dish is called "Russian salad".

It is interesting that many dog names popular in our country have a foreign origin. The fact is that peasants in Russian villages could not often afford to keep a dog. The landlords, on the other hand, often kept dozens and even hundreds of hunting dogs on their country estates (and even took bribes with “borzoi puppies”) and several lap dogs in city houses. Since the Russian nobles knew French (and later English) better than their native language, they gave foreign names to their dogs. Some of them are widely spread among the people. What familiar word could be heard by a peasant who did not know French, nicknamed Cheri (“Cutie”)? Of course, Sharik! Trezor translated into Russian means “treasure” (fr.), the nickname Barbos comes from the French word “bearded”, and Rex is “king” (lat.). A number of nicknames are derived from foreign names. For example, Bobik and Tobik are variants of the Russian adaptation of the English name Bobby, Zhuchka and Zhulka came from Julia. And the nicknames Jim and Jack do not even try to hide their foreign origin.

But what about the great and mighty Russian language? Did he contribute to the development of foreign languages? It turns out that the Russian word muzhik has entered many languages of the world. The word grandmother in English is used in the meaning of "women's headscarf", and pancakes in Britain are called small round sandwiches. The word vulgarity got into the English dictionary because V. Nabokov, who wrote in this language, having despaired of finding its full-fledged analogue, decided to leave it without translation in one of his novels.

The words satellite and comrade are known all over the world, and Kalashnikov for a foreigner is not a surname, but the name of a Russian machine gun. Relatively recently, the now somewhat forgotten terms perestroika and glasnost made a triumphal march around the world. The words vodka, matryoshka and balalaika are used so often and out of place by foreigners talking about Russia that they cause irritation. But for the word pogrom, which was included in the dictionaries of many European languages in 1903, frankly ashamed. The words intelligentsia (author - P. Boborykin) and disinformation are not Russian "in origin", but they were invented in Russia. From the Russian language that became their "native" language, they passed into many foreign languages and became widespread throughout the world.

In conclusion, we will give several examples of the successful formation of new words that were invented by poets and writers and appeared in the Russian language relatively recently. So, we owe the appearance of the words acid, refraction, balance to M.V. Lomonosov. N.M. Karamzin enriched our language with the words influence, industry, public, generally useful, touching, entertaining, concentrated. Radishchev introduced the word citizen in its modern meaning into the Russian language. Ivan Panaev was the first to use the word dude, and Igor Severyanin - the word mediocrity. V. Khlebnikov and A. Kruchenykh claim the authorship of the word zaum.

Of course, in a short article it is impossible to adequately and fully describe the meaning of words borrowed from foreign languages. We hope that we managed to interest readers, who themselves will be able to continue their fascinating journey through the vocabulary of the Russian language.

http://www.distedu.ru/mirror/_rus/rus.1september.ru/2005/16/9.htm
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200 foreign words that have a replacement in Russian

Absolute - perfect
Abstract - abstract
Agrarian - agricultural
Adequate - appropriate
active - active
Actual - topical
immoral - immoral
Analysis - parsing
Entourage - environment
Argument - argument
business - business
Boyfriend - buddy
Briefing - letuchka
variant - variety
Dimensions - dimensions
Sealed - impenetrable
hypothetical - conjectural
Goalkeeper - goalkeeper
Humanity - humanity
Diver - diver
Digest - overview
Debate - debate
Devaluation - depreciation
Demo - show
Destructive - destructive
Detailed - Detailed
Dialogue - conversation
Director - Managing Director
Discomfort - inconvenience
Discussion - discussion, dispute
Differentiation - separation
Dominate - dominate, dominate
duel - duel
ignore - disregard
identical - identical
Image - image
Import - import
individual - sole
indifferent - indifferent
Industry - Industry
inert - indifferent
Intervention - invasion
international - international
infected - infected
Information - information
Camouflage - cover
Merchant - merchant
Compensation - reimbursement
Comfort - convenience
Comfortable - convenient, well-appointed
specific - specific
Competitor - Rival
Competition - competition
ascertain - establish
construct - arrange, build
Constructive - creative
Continent - mainland
Contract - agreement
Confrontation - confrontation
Concentration - concentration
Corrections - amendments
Correspondence - correspondence; message
lender - lender
criminal - criminal
Legitimate - legal
Lepta - contribution
Liquidation - destruction
Linguist - linguist
Lifting - skin tightening
Maximum - maximum, limit
Mask - disguise
Mentality - mindset
Method - reception
Minimum - smallest
Mobility - Mobility
Model - sample
Modernization - update
Moment - moment
instant - instant
Monologue - speech
monument - monument
monumental - majestic
natural - natural
Negative - negative
Level - equalize
Objective - unbiased
Original - original
Hotel - hotel
Parameter - value
Parking - parking
Passive - inactive
personal - personal
Pluralism - plurality
positive - positive
Controversy - dispute
potential - possible
prevail - prevail
claim - claim
Precise - refined
Private - private
Primitive - mediocrity
Forecast - prediction
Progress - promotion
Propaganda - distribution
Publication (action) - publication, publication
Radical - indigenous
Reaction - response
Implement - put into practice
Revision - check
Revolution - coup
Regression - decline
Resolution - decision
Resonance - echo
Result - consequence, consequence
Reconstruction - perestroika
Relief - outline
Renaissance - rebirth
respectable - venerable
Restoration - restoration
Reform - transformation
secret - secret
Service - maintenance
Symposium - session
Symptom - symptom
Synthesis - collection, generalization
Synchronously - simultaneously
Situation - position, situation
Social - public
Sociology - social science
Sponsor - philanthropist (philanthropist)
Stability - resilience
stagnation - stagnation
Stress - tension, shock
Structure - device
Subjective - personal, biased
Sphere - area
Theme - subject
Tolerance - tolerance
Tomatoes - tomatoes
Transformation - transformation
Actual - valid
Forum - meeting
Fundamental - fundamental
Hobby - passion
Chief - head
Shopping - shopping
Show is a spectacle
Exclusive - exceptional
Experiment - experience
Exposition - display
Export - export
Embryo - fetus
Era - chronology

http://vegchel.ru/index.php?newsid=23134&_utl_t=tw

One of the sections of vocabulary is etymology, which studies the origin of a word against the background of changes in the entire vocabulary of the language. Originally Russian and are considered just from the standpoint of etymology. These are the two layers into which the whole lexicon Russian language, in terms of origin. This section of the vocabulary gives an answer to the question of how the word came about, what it means, where and when it was borrowed, and what changes it has undergone.

Vocabulary of the Russian language

All words that exist in a language are called vocabulary. With their help we call various items, phenomena, actions, signs, numbers, etc.

The vocabulary is explained by the entry into the system, which led to the presence of their common origin and development. Russian vocabulary is rooted in the past of the Slavic tribes and has developed along with the people over the centuries. This is the so-called primordial vocabulary, which has existed for a long time.

There is also a second layer in the vocabulary: these are words that came to us from other languages as a result of the emergence of historical ties.

Thus, if we consider the vocabulary from the position of origin, then we can distinguish the words originally Russian and borrowed. both groups are represented in the language in large numbers.

Origin of Russian words

The vocabulary of the Russian language has more than 150,000 words. Let's see what words are called native Russian.

Originally Russian vocabulary has several tiers:

Borrowing process

In our language, native Russian and borrowed words coexist. This is due historical development countries.

Since ancient times, as a people, Russians have entered into cultural, economic, political, military, and trade relations with other countries and states. This quite naturally led to the fact that the words of those peoples with whom we collaborated appeared in our language. Otherwise it was impossible to understand each other.

Over time, these language borrowings became Russified, entered the group, and we no longer perceive them as foreign. Everyone knows such words as "sugar", "banya", "activist", "artel", "school" and many others.

Originally Russian and borrowed words, examples of which are given above, have long and firmly entered our everyday life and help build our speech.

Foreign words in Russian

Getting into our language, foreign words are forced to change. The nature of their changes affects different aspects: phonetics, morphology, semantics. Borrowing is subject to our laws and regulations. Such words undergo changes in endings, in suffixes, the gender changes. For example, the word "parliament" we have male, and in German, where it came from, - middle.

The very meaning of the word may change. So, the word "painter" in our country means a worker, and in German it is a "painter".

The semantics are changing. For example, the borrowed words "canned", "conservative" and "conservatory" came to us from different languages and have nothing in common. But in your native language, French, Latin and Italian, respectively, they came from Latin and have the meaning of "preserve".

Thus, it is important to know from which languages words are borrowed. This will help to correctly determine their lexical meaning.

In addition, sometimes it is difficult to recognize native Russian and borrowed words in the mass of vocabulary that we use every day. For this purpose, there are dictionaries that explain the meaning and origin of each word.

Classification of loanwords

Two groups of borrowed words are distinguished by a specific type:

those who came from the Slavic language;
taken from non-Slavic languages.

In the first group, Old Slavonicisms make up a large mass - words that have been in church books since the 9th century. And now such words as “cross”, “universe”, “power”, “virtue”, etc. are widespread. Many Old Slavonicisms have Russian analogues (“lanites” - “cheeks”, “mouths” - “lips”, etc. ) Phonetic (“gates” - “gates”), morphological (“grace”, “benefactor”), semantic (“gold” - “gold”) Old Slavonicisms are distinguished.

The second group consists of borrowings from other languages, including:

Latin (in the field of science, politics public life- "school", "republic", "corporation");
Greek (household - "bed", "dish", terms - "synonym", "vocabulary");
Western European (military - “headquarters”, “junker”, from the field of art - “easel”, “landscape”, nautical terms - “boat”, “shipyard”, “schooner”, musical terms- "aria", "libretto");
Turkic (in culture and trade "pearl", "caravan", "iron");
Scandinavian (household - "anchor", "whip") words.

Dictionary of foreign words

Lexicology is a very exact science. Everything is clearly structured here. All words are divided into groups, depending on the feature underlying them.

Native Russian and borrowed words are divided into two groups based on etymology, that is, origin.

There are various dictionaries that suit specific purposes. So, you can call a dictionary of foreign words, where foreign language examples that have come to us over the centuries. Many of these words are now perceived by us as Russian. The dictionary explains the meaning and indicates where the word came from.

Dictionaries of foreign words in our country have a whole history. The first was created at the beginning of the eighteenth century, it was handwritten. At the same time, a three-volume dictionary was published, the author of which was N.M. Yanovsky. In the twentieth century there was whole line foreign dictionaries.

Among the most famous are the “School Dictionary of Foreign Words”, edited by The dictionary entry provides information about the origin of the word, gives an interpretation of its meaning, examples of use, set expressions with it.

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