home › electrical equipment › To the question of the legal definition of the concept of “public morality. From journalism to literary text a journey through the works

To the question of the legal definition of the concept of “public morality. From journalism to literary text a journey through the works

Current page: 11 (total book has 29 pages) [accessible reading excerpt: 20 pages]

We see the same thing in the "Word": everything is described in motion, in action. As in the Iliad, the battle is compared to a thunderstorm, to a downpour. As comparisons, cosmic phenomena are given (princes are compared with the sun, failure is predicted by an eclipse). Comparisons with labor processes prevail: harvesting, sowing, forging - and with images of hunting and hunting animals (pardus, falcons). The world of gods enters the world of people - as in the Iliad. And at the same time, The Tale of Igor's Campaign is not the Iliad.

The world of the Word is Big world easy, uncomplicated action, the world of rapidly occurring events unfolding in a vast space. The heroes of The Word move with fantastic speed and act almost effortlessly. The point of view from above dominates (cf. the “raised horizon” in ancient Russian miniatures and icons). The author sees the Russian land as if from a great height, covers vast spaces with his mind's eye, as if "flies with his mind under the clouds", "prowls through the fields to the mountains."

In this lightest of worlds, as soon as the horses begin to neigh behind Sula, the glory of victory is already ringing in Kyiv; the trumpets will only begin to sound in Novgorod-Seversky, as the banners are already in Putivl - the troops are ready to march. The girls sing on the Danube - their voices wind across the sea to Kyiv (the road from the Danube was sea). Heard in the distance and the ringing of bells. The author easily transfers the story from one area to another. He reaches Kyiv from Polotsk. And even the sound of a stirrup is heard in Chernigov from Tmutorokan. The speed with which the actors, animals and birds move is characteristic. They rush, jump, rush, fly over vast spaces. People move with extraordinary speed, they roam the fields like a wolf, they are transported, hanging on a cloud, they soar like eagles. As soon as you mount a horse, as you can already see the Don, there definitely does not exist a multi-day and laborious steppe transition through the waterless steppe. The prince can fly "from afar". He can soar high, spreading in the winds. His thunderstorms flow through the lands. Yaroslavna is compared with a bird and wants to fly over a bird. Warriors are light - like falcons and jackdaws. They are living shereshirs, arrows. Heroes not only move with ease, but effortlessly stab and cut enemies. They are strong as animals: tours, pardus, wolves. For Kuryans there is no difficulty and no effort. They gallop with strained bows (stretching a bow in a gallop is unusually difficult), their bodies are open and their sabers are sharp. They run around in the field Gray wolves. They know the paths and the yarugas. Vsevolod's warriors can scatter the Volga with their oars and pour out the Don with their helmets.

People are not only strong, like animals, and light, like birds, - all actions are performed in the "Word" without much physical stress, without effort, as if by themselves. The winds easily carry arrows. As soon as fingers fall on the strings, they themselves rumble glory. In this atmosphere of ease of any action, the hyperbolic exploits of Vsevolod Bui Tur become possible.

The special dynamism of the Lay is also associated with this “light” space.

The author of The Lay prefers dynamic descriptions to static ones. It describes actions, not stationary states. Speaking of nature, he does not give landscapes, but describes the reaction of nature to events occurring in people. He describes the approaching thunderstorm, the help of nature in Igor's flight, the behavior of birds and animals, the sadness of nature or its joy. Nature in the Lay is not the background of events, not the scenery in which the action takes place - it is itself actor, something like an antique choir. Nature reacts to events as a kind of "narrator", expresses the author's opinion and author's emotions.

The "lightness" of space and environment in the "Word" is not in everything similar to the "lightness" of a fairy tale. She is closer to the icon. The space in the "Word" is artistically reduced, "grouped" and symbolized. People react to events in masses, peoples act as a single whole: Germans, Venetians, Greeks and Moravians sing the glory of Svyatoslav and the cabins of Prince Igor. As a single whole, like "coups" of people on the icons, gothic red maidens, Polovtsy, and a squad act in the "Word". As on icons, the actions of the princes are symbolic and emblematic. Igor disembarked from the golden saddle and moved into the saddle of Kashchei: this symbolizes his new state of captivity. On the river on Kayala, darkness covers the light, and this symbolizes defeat. Abstract concepts - grief, resentment, glory - are personified and materialized, acquiring the ability to act like people or living and inanimate nature. Resentment rises and enters the land of Troyan as a virgin, splashes with swan wings, lies awaken and are put to sleep, joy droops, the mind becomes tight, ascends the Russian land, strife is sown and grows, sadness flows, melancholy spills.

"Easy" space corresponds to humanity surrounding nature. Everything in space is interconnected not only physically, but also emotionally.

Nature sympathizes with the Russians. Animals, birds, plants, rivers, atmospheric phenomena (thunderstorms, winds, clouds) take part in the fate of Russian people. The sun shines for the prince, but the night groans for him, warning him of danger. Div shouts so that the Volga, Pomorye, Posulye, Surozh, Korsun and Tmutorokan can hear him. The grass droops, the tree bows to the ground with tightness. Even the walls of cities respond to events.

This technique of characterizing events and expressions for them copyright is extremely characteristic of the "Word", gives it emotionality and, at the same time, a special persuasiveness of this emotionality. It is, as it were, an appeal to the environment: to people, nations, to nature itself. Emotionality, as it were, is not authorial, but objectively existing in the environment, “spilled” in space, flows in it.

Thus, emotionality does not come from the author, the “emotional perspective” is multifaceted, as in icons. Emotionality is, as it were, inherent in the events themselves and nature itself. It saturates the space. The author acts as a spokesman for the emotionality objectively existing outside of him.

All this is not in the fairy tale, but much is suggested here by the annals and other works of ancient Russian literature.

The only significant work of the XII century about the "offensive" campaign is "The Tale of Igor's Campaign", but we know that it was undertaken for defensive purposes "for the Russian land", and this is emphasized in every possible way in the "Lay".

But how many works appear on purely “defensive” topics, especially in connection with the Batu invasion, the invasions of the Swedes and the Livonian knights: “Tales of the Battle of Kalka”, “The Life of Alexander Nevsky”, “The Word of the Death of the Russian Land”, chronicle stories about the defense of Vladimir , Kiev, Kozelsk, the story of the death of Mikhail Chernigovsky, Vasilko Rostov (in the annals of Princess Maria), "The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan", etc. The end of the XIV and XV centuries are again covered by a whole wreath of stories about the defense of cities: about the Battle of Kulikovo, Tamerlane, about Tokhtamysh, about Edigey, a number of stories about the defense against Lithuania. A new chain of stories about courageous defense, but not about courageous campaigns - in the 16th century. The main one is about the defense of Pskov from Stefan Batory.

It cannot be said that there is a lack of offensive themes for literature in historical reality. Only one Livonian war, waged with varying success, in which outstanding victories were won, would give many opportunities in this direction.

The only exception is the Kazan History, most of which is devoted to Russian campaigns against Kazan. The same continues in the 18th and 19th centuries. Not a single one of the great victories over the Turks in the 18th century gave a great work, nor campaigns in the Caucasus and in Central Asia. But the "Caucasian theme", like "Kazan History", led to a kind of idealization of the Caucasian peoples - up to the Caucasian army itself, dressed by order of Yermolov in the clothes of the Caucasian highlanders.

Only a defensive war gave food creative imagination great writers: Patriotic War 1812 and the Sevastopol defense. It is remarkable that "War and Peace" does not refer to the foreign campaign of the Russian army. "War and Peace" ends at the borders of Russia. And this is very revealing.

I don't think this is a feature specific to Russian literature. Let us recall the "Song of Roland" and other works of the Middle Ages. Let's remember the works of the New Age.

The heroism of the defenders has always attracted the attention of writers more than the heroism of the attackers: even in Napoleonic history. The most profound works are devoted to the Battle of Waterloo, the Hundred Days of Napoleon, the campaign against Moscow - or rather, the retreat of Napoleon.

Immediately after World War II, in his lectures at the Sorbonne on the history of Russian literature, A. Mazon said: “Russians have always savored their defeats and portrayed them as victories”; he meant the Battle of Kulikovo, Borodino, Sevastopol. He was wrong in his emotional, hostile to all Russian assessment of defense topics. But he was right that the people are peace-loving and write more readily about defense than about offensive, and heroism, the victory of the spirit, sees in the heroic defense of their cities, country, and not in the capture of another country, the capture of foreign cities.

The psychology of defenders is deeper, deeper patriotism can be shown precisely on defense. The people and the culture of the people are essentially peaceful, and this can be seen with complete clarity in the wide scope of the topics of literature.

There can be no recurrence of a scientific dispute about the antiquity of the Lay, but there are enough dilettantes of various kinds, and you can never vouch for them ... The Lay, like any well-known glorified monuments, is a favorite object to "show oneself". Lovers are another matter. Those who love the "Word" can discover many new things, can enter into science. But amateurs and dilettantes are different categories of people.

Documents have always been part of the annals. Let us recall the treaties with the Greeks of 911 and 941, the texts of which are included in the Tale of Bygone Years. Yes, and later in the annals, along with literary materials(historical stories, military stories, lives of saints and sermons) very often came across written documents, not to mention “oral” documents - speeches of princes at a veche, before going on a campaign or before a battle, on princely photographs: they were also transmitted, if possible, from documentary accuracy. However, only in the 16th century did the chronicle itself begin to be fully realized as a document - exposing or justifying, giving rights or taking them away. And this leaves an imprint on the style of the chronicle: responsibility makes the presentation of the chronicle more magnificent and sublime. Chronicle adjoins the style of the second monumentalism. And this pretentious style is a kind of fusion of oratory with state office work.

Both developed to a high degree in the 16th century and intertwined with each other at the peaks, that is, in literary works.

But the chronicle - is it the pinnacle of literary art? This is a very important phenomenon in Russian culture, but, from our point of view, it seems to be the least literary. However, raised on the columns of oratory monumentalism and documentary monumentalism, the chronicle ascended to the very heights of literary creativity. It has become the art of artificiality.

As instructions in relation to the rulers of states, not only the “Secret of the Secret”, “Stephanit and Ikhnilat”, “The Tale of Queen Dinara”, many works of Maxim the Greek, the messages of the elder Philotheus and “The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir” - the latter with a statement of theories ( not always similar) the rights of Russian sovereigns to the throne and their role in world history, but also chronographs and chronicles, annals and chroniclers. State power, interpreted in different ways, is nevertheless always placed high, the authority of the sovereign is affirmed everywhere, the responsibility of sovereigns to the country, subjects and world history, the right to interfere in the fate of the world is affirmed everywhere. On the one hand, this destroyed the old ideas about the Grand Duke as a simple owner of people and lands, but on the other hand, elevating the power of the sovereign to the sole representative and defender of Orthodoxy after the fall of the independence of all Orthodox states, created the prerequisites for the Moscow sovereigns to be confident in their complete infallibility and the right to interfere even in every little detail of private life.

Teachings, instructions, advice, concepts of the origin of the clan and power of the Moscow sovereigns not only put power under the control of the public, but at the same time inspired the Moscow sovereigns with the idea of their complete lack of control, created the ideological prerequisites for the future despotism of Ivan the Terrible.

On the “softness of the voice” of ancient Russian literature. This is not at all a reproach to her. The volume sometimes gets in the way, annoying. She is obsessive, unceremonious. I have always preferred "quiet poetry". And I remember the beauty of the ancient Russian "quietness" next case. At one of the conferences of the sector of ancient Russian literature of the Pushkin House, where there were reports on ancient Russian music, Ivan Nikiforovich Zavoloko, now deceased, spoke. He was an Old Believer, graduated from Charles University in Prague, knew languages and classical European music, the manner of performing vocal works. But he also loved ancient Russian singing, he knew it, he sang it himself. And so he showed how to sing on the hooks. And it was necessary not to stand out in the choir, to sing in an undertone. And, standing on the pulpit, he sang several works of the XVI-XVII centuries. He sang alone, but as a member of the choir. Quiet, calm, secluded. It was a living contrast to the manner in which some of the choirs now perform ancient Russian works.

And in literature, the authors knew how to restrain themselves. It doesn't take long to see such beauty. Remember the story "The Tale of Bygone Years" about the death of Oleg, the story of the capture of Ryazan by Batu, "The Tale of Peter and Fevronia of Murom." And how many more of these modest, "quiet" stories that had such a strong effect on their readers!

As for Avvakum, it is on the verge of modern times.

Strikingly "empathy" Archpriest Avvakum. Regarding the loss of the son of the noblewoman Morozova, Avvakum writes to her: “It’s already uncomfortable for you to whip with a rosary and it’s not comfortable to look at how he rides horses and stroke his head - do you remember how it used to be?” The feeling of the absence of a son is clearly conveyed to physiology: there is no one to pat on the head! Here you can see Avvakum the artist.

The literature of modern times has adopted (partly imperceptibly to itself) many features and peculiarities of ancient literature. First of all, her consciousness of responsibility to the country, her teaching, moral and state character, her susceptibility to the literatures of other peoples, her respect and interest in the fate of other peoples who entered the orbit of the Russian state, her individual topics and moral approach to these topics.

"Russian classic literature is not just “first-class literature” and not, as it were, “exemplary” literature, which has become classically impeccable due to its high purely literary merits.

All these virtues, of course, are in Russian classical literature, but this is by no means all. This literature also has its own special “face”, “individuality”, and its characteristic features.

And I would first of all note that the creators of Russian classical literature were authors who had enormous “public responsibility”.

Russian classical literature is not entertaining, although fascination is highly characteristic of it. This is the fascination of a special nature: it is determined by the offer to the reader to solve complex moral and social problems - to solve together: both the author and the readers.

The best works Russian classical literature never offer readers ready-made answers to publicly moral questions. The authors do not moralize, but seem to address the readers: “Think about it!”, “Decide for yourself!”, “Look what happens in life!”, “Do not hide from responsibility for everything and everyone!” Therefore, answers to questions are given by the author together with the readers.

Russian classical literature is a grandiose dialogue with the people, with their intelligentsia in the first place. This is an appeal to the conscience of readers.

The moral and social issues with which Russian classical literature addresses its readers are not temporary, not momentary, although they were of particular importance for their time. Due to their "eternity" these questions are of such great importance for us and will be so for all subsequent generations.

Russian classical literature is eternally alive, it does not become history, only “history of literature”. She talks to us, her conversation is fascinating, elevates us both aesthetically and ethically, makes us wiser, increases our life experience, allows us to experience “ten lives” together with her heroes, experience the experience of many generations and apply it in our own lives. It gives us the opportunity to experience the happiness of living not only “for ourselves”, but also for many others - for the “humiliated and insulted”, for “little people”, for unknown heroes and for the moral triumph of the highest human qualities ...

The origins of this humanism in Russian literature lie in its centuries-old development, when literature sometimes became the only voice of conscience, the only force that determined the national self-consciousness of the Russian people - literature and folklore close to it. It was at the time of feudal fragmentation, at the time of the foreign yoke, when literature, the Russian language were the only forces binding the people.

Russian literature has always drawn its huge forces in Russian reality, in the social experience of the people, but foreign literature also served as a help to it; first Byzantine, Bulgarian, Czech, Serbian, Polish, ancient literature, and from the Petrine era - all the literature of Western Europe.

The literature of our time has grown on the basis of Russian classical literature.

The assimilation of classical traditions is a characteristic and very important feature of modern literature. Without assimilation of the best traditions there can be no progress. It is only necessary that everything most valuable should not be missed, forgotten, simplified in these traditions.

We must not lose anything from our great heritage.

“Book reading” and “reverence for books” must preserve for us and for future generations their high purpose, their high place in our lives, in shaping our life positions, in choosing ethical and aesthetic values, in preventing our consciousness from being littered various kinds of "pulp" and meaningless, purely entertaining bad taste.

The essence of progress in literature lies in the expansion of the aesthetic and ideological "possibilities" of literature, which are created as a result of "aesthetic accumulation", the accumulation of all kinds of literary experience and the expansion of its "memory".

Works of great art always admit of several explanations, equally correct. This is surprising and not always even clear. I will give examples.

The features of style and worldview reflected in the works can be simultaneously and fully explained, interpreted from the point of view of the writer's biography, from the point of view of the movement of literature (its "internal laws"), from the point of view of the development of verse (if it concerns poetry) and , finally, from the point of view of historical reality - not only taken at once, but "deployed in action." And this applies not only to literature. I noticed similar phenomena in the development of architecture and painting. It is a pity that I am new to music and the history of philosophy.

More limited, mainly in the ideological aspect, literary work explained in terms of the history of social thought (there are fewer explanations of the style of works). It is not enough to say that every work of art must be explained in the "context of culture." This is possible, this is correct, but not everything boils down to this. The fact is that the work can equally be explained in the "context of itself." In other words (and I'm not afraid to say it) - immanently, to be explained as a closed system. The fact is that the "external" explanation of a work of art ( historical setting, the influence of the aesthetic views of his time, the history of literature - its position at the time of writing the work, etc.) - to a certain extent “dismembers” the work; commenting and explaining the work to some extent splits the work, loses attention to the whole. Even if we talk about the style of a work and at the same time understand the style in a limited way - within the limits of the form - then the stylistic explanation, losing sight of the whole, cannot give a complete explanation of the work as an aesthetic phenomenon.

Therefore, there is always a need to consider any work of art as a kind of unity, a manifestation of aesthetic and ideological consciousness.

In literature, forward movement takes place, as it were, in large brackets, embracing a whole group of phenomena: ideas, stylistic features, themes, etc. The new enters along with new life facts, but as a definite totality. A new style, the style of an epoch, is often a new grouping of old elements that enter into new combinations with each other. At the same time, phenomena that previously held secondary positions begin to occupy a dominant position, and what was previously considered paramount recedes into the shadows.

When a great poet writes about something, it is important not only what he writes and how, but also what he writes. The text is not indifferent to who wrote it, in what era, in what country, and even to the one who pronounces it and in what country. That is why the American "critical school" in literary criticism is extremely limited in its conclusions.

In the testament of St. Remigius to Clovis: “Incende quod adorasti. Adora quod incendisti. "Burn what you worshipped, bow down to what you burned." Wed in the "Nest of Nobles" in the mouth of Mikhalevich:

And I burned everything I worshipped
He bowed to everything that he burned.

How did it get from Remigius to Turgenev? But without finding this out, you can’t even write about it in literary commentaries.

The topics of the books are: reality as potential literature and literature as potential reality (the latter topic requires scientific wit).

Old Russian literature

Westernizers and Slavophiles resemble each other: in ignorance (forgivable for their time) of ancient Russian culture and in the wrong opposition of Ancient Rus' to new Russia. This opposition was started by Peter the Great himself. He needed to oppose his cause to Ancient Rus', to give pathos to his reforms, to justify his decisiveness and cruelty. But there was no decisive turning point. I wrote about this in a special article. Peter's reforms were the product of a process that went on throughout the 17th century. Peter himself and his associates were people brought up in Moscow. Peter changed the entire sign system in Russian culture - military uniforms and civilian clothes, banners, customs, amusements, moved the capital to a new place, changed ideas about the power of the monarch, about his behavior, introduced the Table of Ranks, created the civil alphabet, etc., and other All this was evident. He built a fleet, but coast-dwellers still worked on the oars of galleys and on the yards of sailing ships ...

The idea of a "break" was equally established among Westerners and Slavophiles, and is still alive today.

The significance of the Slavophiles in the Russian culture of the New Age was very great, not only because the older Slavophiles opposed serfdom, but because they prepared a correct assessment ancient Russian art, contributed to the search for ancient Russian manuscripts, etc. Any movement forward requires looking back at the old, in Russia - at "its own antiquity", at Ancient Rus', at the values that it possessed. Remember Leskov, Remizov, Khlebnikov, and in painting - Malevich, Kandinsky, Goncharova and Larionov, Filonov and many others. Their avant-gardism is half old Russian and folklore. Many do not realize this, and in the West the passion for these artists went hand in hand with the passion for icons.

The literature of Ancient Rus' is fragmentary. It survived only in fragments. But the variety of fragments allows us to judge the huge size of the whole.

Ancient literature differs from the new by the conditions of its existence, its existence as a whole. Ancient literature is distributed by hand, by way of lists. In the lists, it is both distorted and improved. The work may deviate from its original form for better or for worse. It lives with the era, changes under the influence of changes in the environment, its tastes, its views. It moves from one environment to another. The scribe, not just the writer, creates the work. The scribe fulfills the role of performer in folklore. In ancient literature there is even improvisation, and it creates the same variability as in folklore.

There is a philistine idea of the "non-independence" of ancient Russian literature. However, not only every literature, but also every culture is “non-independent”. The real values of culture develop only in contact with other cultures, grow on rich cultural soil and take into account the experience of the neighboring one. Can a grain develop in a glass of distilled water? Maybe! - but until the grain's own strength is exhausted, then the plant dies very quickly. From this it is clear: the more “non-independent” any culture, the more independent it is. Russian culture (and literature, of course) is very lucky. It grew on a wide plain connected to East and West, North and South. Its roots are not only in its own soil, but in Byzantium, and through it - in Antiquity, in the Slavic south-east of Europe (and above all in Bulgaria), in Scandinavia, in the multinational state of Ancient Russia, in which, on an equal footing with the Eastern Slavs included Finno-Ugric peoples (Chud, Merya, all participated even in the campaigns of Russian princes) and Turkic peoples. Rus' in the XI-XII centuries was in close contact with the Hungarians, with the Western Slavs. All these contacts grew even wider in subsequent times. One enumeration of the peoples who came into contact with us speaks of the power and independence of Russian culture, which was able to borrow a lot from them and remain itself. And what would happen if we were fenced off from Europe and the East Chinese wall? We would have remained deep provincials in world culture.

Is there a “backwardness” of Old Russian literature? And what is invested in this concept of "backwardness"? What are we, racing? Indeed, in this case, there must be a certain start, conditions, and so on. And if the peoples of Europe belong to different age groups, and our birth is not always clear? Byzantium and Italy continued Antiquity, and we began to develop later and in other conditions. In a word: my neighbor, who is three years old, has lagged behind me?

The other is "retarding". Did it exist in the culture of Ancient Rus'? In some ways - yes, but this is a feature of development and it does not fall under the assessment. For example, we did not have such a lightning-fast transition from the Middle Ages to the New Age, as in Italy. In Italy there was a "Renaissance era", but we had the phenomena of the Renaissance, and they dragged on for several centuries - up to Pushkin. Our Renaissance was “inhibited”, and therefore the struggle for the personal principle in our culture was especially tense and difficult and had a sharp effect on literature XIX century. Is it good or bad?

Another concept is “artistic weakness of literature”. Every culture is weak in something, strong in something. Old Russian culture was very strong in architecture, in fine arts, and now it turns out - in music. And in literature? The literature was unique. Publicism, moral exactingness of literature, the richness of the language of the literary works of Ancient Rus' are amazing.

The picture is rather complex.

In the Middle Ages, the main thing in literature was the creation of a strong and stable system capable of resisting (especially in the conditions of a foreign statehood and a foreign culture).

External "conservatism" is a feature of medieval culture, and especially Slavic.

The philosophical feature of ancient Slavic thinkers is to follow this principle. Hence the abundance of quotations affirming the continuity of thought, its traditional character. Hence, in the very construction of the works - following the enfilade principle (works of different genres are, as it were, strung on one plot).

IN medieval literatures the creation of a new stylistic and genre system is often based on old components (images, metaphors, metonyms, stylistic phrases, elements of “word weaving” and canons). In modern times, the new is created mainly from the invention of new terms.

“The modesty of form” is a very important phenomenon for the progressive development of literature. This is not only a fear of the “frozenness” of genres, their monotony, but it is also a desire for truth, for the simplicity of truth. To one degree or another, it can be in any literature, but for Russian literature it is especially typical. The “shame of form” leads to simple forms (it is impossible without a form at all), to the forms of documents, letters, secondary and secondary genres, to the desire to avoid a “smooth” style, “smooth writing” (Dostoevsky, Tolstoy, Leskov), to the constant updating of the literary language through colloquial (Dostoevsky, Leskov, Zoshchenko, and many others), through the language of shorthand (in Dostoevsky's Possessed), through the parody of foreign expressions, which sometimes seem pompous and pretentious, etc., etc. I wrote about this several times. Departing from conventional forms (“shamefulness of form”), literature all the time involuntarily gives birth in itself to a new conventionality of form, gives rise to new genres, etc. Realism retreats furthest from conventional forms, and yet generates new conventional forms in itself.

Tradition is typical of all medieval literature - the literature of the time of feudalism. The first question that arises is: what is the reason for this?

I think that this traditional character of all medieval literature is connected with the hierarchical construction of feudal society. A society divided according to a hierarchical principle differs within itself in terms of rights, power, and this division, usually very complex, is reinforced by customs, ceremonies, etiquette of behavior, clothing (clothing performs the function of a sign system, indicating who is in front of people).

All the differences in a hierarchical society are so fractional and numerous that they are difficult to remember and need to be constantly reinforced. Hence the tendency to constancy of the entire sign system in culture. And traditionalism is characteristic not only for literature, but for all art in general - for painting, sculpture, architecture, applied art, and even for everyday life, for the etiquette of behavior.

The Middle Ages are ceremonial, and ceremonies are always traditional. This is the property of any ceremonies. That is why, until now, ceremonies in the royal or university life of Western Europe are performed in clothes centuries old and with ancient objects that are not used in modern times (wands, maces, swords, chest chains, mantles, etc.).

The second question that arises in connection with the first one is: in what areas of literature does tradition affect?

There are many of these areas in the literature. First of all, the traditional nature of the genre system, which is different from the simultaneously existing genre system of folklore. The whole system of literature is a kind of ceremonial system. In their own cases, lives are read, in their own - chronicles, in their own - solemn words and sermons, etc. And each "reading" is performed in its own way: in churches, in the monastery refectory or individually in a cell, from the church pulpit, or is used for reference - as a reminder of a particular rite, the order of worship. A “hierarchy of genres” is developed in literature: some are written in a “high” literary language, others in a simpler one, etc. There are also traditional formulas (separately for each genre), etiquette formulas, separate words and expressions that are common in some cases and uncommon in others.

But in addition to the traditions of genres and their use, there are traditions in the depiction of people. There are saints, but they are also different: martyrs of the faith, warriors, rulers, monks, high-ranking church leaders. Each of the saints is depicted according to his own rules, in his own canons. But, besides the saints, there are also ordinary people, and among the ordinary people there are beggars, peasants, officials. All of them are included in certain traditions of the image, especially since the plots are repeated, they can only unfold in one way, and not in another. Here is a small example. A villain, a robber can become a saint in all medieval literatures. Here his path is free. But a true saint (unless he is a hypocrite) will never become an apostate from the truth. There is a certain "predeterminedness of the image", and here's what is surprising: this predetermination has its own logic. Tradition does not go against the laws of psychology.

In a word, there are dozens of forms of tradition, hundreds of traditional formulas, thousands of ways of formalization. Literature constantly develops traditionalism and it is very difficult to refuse it.

Literature is dominated by the "charm of traditional forms"!

Question three: how does tradition and artistry correlate? Doesn't the dominance of tradition mean that there was no genuine creativity in literature (and in art in general) in the Middle Ages?

No, in art, and in particular in literature, there is not only a dominant tradition, but also a struggle against it. And this is where the "power lines" of creativity appear. Art is always the overcoming of “non-art”, but if this “non-art” is weakly expressed, then the struggle against it that delights us will also be weak. In every strong art, it is opposed by a strong resisting "non-art". In medieval literature, "non-art" is traditional. God forbid to think that by doing so I would, as it were, recognize traditionalism as a negative phenomenon. Marble resists the sculptor, and a real sculptor appreciates this. This resistance is not appreciated only by those false sculptors who work with the help of devices that facilitate their work, on a material that allows you to create anything and in any size. Then such monsters appear in art, such as the famous “tsar-woman” in Kiev, monuments to cosmonautics in Moscow (“Gagarin” or the crazy “crook” in Ostankino), etc. These “sculptors” don’t have to tear down a mountain (with with the help of machines, of course), but only medieval architects could really include the mountain in their artistic tasks! The same is true in medieval literature. The material of traditions is vast, varied, it resists; the artist feels its “heaviness”, the diversity of language, canons in the image of a person and creates amazingly beautiful things, works.

Here in the "Tale of Boris and Gleb." Gleb behaves according to the traditions prescribed by the martyr lives genre: he does not resist the killers, but he childishly asks them not to kill him: “Do not give me, my dear and dear brothers! Do not give me, nor have you done anything evil. And so on. This monologue before the murder is quite long, but it is justified by Gleb's age. Gleb's request not to kill him - it was him, Gleb, and not a stencil: "Have mercy on unnosti<юности>mine, have mercy, my Lord!<колоса>, not already szr? vsha ”, etc.

There are many such examples of the penetration of art into the stencil, and it is these penetrations that enliven traditional art. Tradition serves as a frame for precious inclusions of genuine creativity.

Question four. And what is the role of this particular type of "material resistance" in medieval literature - in the history of literature? Medieval literature belongs to the norms of primary literature, in which the personality of the writer, his individuality, is not clearly manifested. We find the same thing in relation to traditionalism in folklore. And it is important that traditionalism facilitates creativity. The carpenter cuts the hut. He doesn't need to invent anything new—big new, anyway. The dimensions of logs and boards, the methods of felling - all this has been determined for centuries. He will only slightly change something, put in an extra log, draw out a pattern that is new in some way. It is easy for him to work without errors. The same in folklore when creating new song or epics, weeping for the deceased, etc. But this is even clearer in medieval literatures. Traditions, canons, etiquette, ready-made forms of language allow the writer (who sometimes does not feel like a writer at all) to focus on the main thing and create a work for a new saint or something for a new service to the old one. The chronicler already knows what to record from the events, what facts to highlight, to inform the reader about them. He will add something of his own to this “traditional vision” of history, will reflect his excitement, his grief… Traditionalism increases the genetic abilities of literature, facilitates the creation of new works.

Question five. And why do we need this "genetic lightness"? Let it be fewer works but with other resistance materials. This question is difficult. I'll try to explain what's going on here. Literature exists and develops only under the condition of a certain saturation of the "space of literature" with works. If there are few works, literature as a living whole ceases to exist. In literary works there is a "sense of shoulder", a sense of neighborhood. Each new talented work raises the literary demands of the writing and reading society. If there is no folklore at all, it is impossible to compose an epic. In a society where music has never been heard, it is impossible to create not only Beethoven, but also Gershwin. Literature exists as a medium. "The Brothers Karamazov" could appear and exist only in the neighborhood with other works.

From the depths of the "literary universe" come "gravitational waves", radiation penetrating it. They come from other galaxies - for example, the Byzantine, Syrian, Coptic, and some even from somewhere beyond all possible galaxies. These are traditional waves. As astronomers, we can make assumptions about the beginning of literatures, about the beginning of literary life. No one has yet accurately recorded their occurrence, their beginning. By studying traditions, we can understand the emergence of literary creativity. AN Veselovsky came close to solving this problem.

Outside of Russian, Armenian, Georgian literatures, there are their own forms of oral art of the word, there is the literature of Byzantium, behind it - Antiquity, and behind it what?

To penetrate into the very depths of the existence of the art of the word, we must be astronomers of literature, have a gigantic scientific imagination and gigantic erudition.

Not only literary works require neighborhood, but the neighborhood of sciences also requires a lot. Literary criticism lagged behind other sciences. We have a lot to do.

Modern writers (writers of the New Age) are proud of the accuracy of their comparisons, their external similarity. And medieval writers strove to see the essential beyond the external. Metaphors were symbols for them; the inner essence broke through the external resemblance - the chicken came out of the egg shell ...

When the author of The Tale of Igor's Campaign compares Yaroslavna with a cuckoo, he sees in her not just a bird (then it would be better to compare her with a seagull), but a mother whose son is in someone else's nest - in Konchak's nest.

The swan in the Lay is always a dying vision. And then, when the Polovtsian carts running from the Russians scream like a swan. And then, when the Virgin of Resentment beats with swan wings on the Blue Sea - the very one from where the Polovtsian regiments moved towards Igor's army.

It is not by chance that Yaroslavna turns with a prayer in her cry to the Sun, Wind and Dnieper, that is, to three of the four elements: light, air, water. She does not need to turn to the Earth, for she is the Earth itself, that is, the homeland. The earth cannot be hostile. The sun first warned Igor, and then twisted the bows of Igor's warriors with thirst. The wind drove clouds from the sea to Rus' and picked up the Polovtsian arrows to carry them to Igor. The Dnieper could have helped Svyatoslav's troops to reach the battlefield, but it did not help.

And now, in response to Yaroslavna's prayer, the sun, which warned Igor with darkness, hides Igor's flight with the same darkness. The wind comes like tornadoes from the sea to the camps of the Polovtsians. The Dnieper, the main of the Russian rivers, with its allied rivers helps Igor in his flight to the Russian land.

Medieval metaphors are created by the similarity of action, and not by the similarity of appearance: in Cyril of Turov, the holy fathers of the cathedral are “rivers of rational paradise, watering the whole world of saved teaching and washing away sinful filth with streams of your punishment” (Adrianov-Peretz V.P. Essays on the poetic style of the Ancient Rus', p. 50). Emperor Tzimiskes at Manasseh: “another heaven of God, four rivers flow: truth, wisdom, courage, chastity” (Russian Chronograph, ch. 177, p. 383). Man is grass (Psalm 102, v. 14), date and cedar (Psalm 34). Pachomius Serb has Nikon of Radonezh as a “noble garden” (Yablonsky, p. LXIX–LXX). Avvakum, in a letter to Morozova, Urusova and Danilova, calls them: "the vine of reverence, the stem of suffering, the flower of sanctification and the fruit of God-given."

developed metaphor. The symbolism that became the picture. In the Life of Tryphon of Pechenga, his oral testament to the brethren before his death: “Do not love the world and even in the world; you know it yourself, when this world is cursed - like the sea is unfaithful, rebellious, abysses (?) with wicked spirits (?), it worries destructively with the winds, it is bitter with lies, the slander of the devil shakes, foams, it rages and is embarrassed by the sins of the wind, about immersion<о потоплении>peace-loving people are trying; weeping everywhere, spreading its own destruction, and finally condemning everything with death” (Orthodox Interlocutor, 1859, part 2, p. 113).

In the ideological side of every literary work there are, as it were, two layers. One layer of completely conscious statements, thoughts, ideas that the author seeks to inspire his readers and what he is trying to convince or convince them of. This is a layer of active influence on readers. The second layer is of a different nature of activity: it is, as it were, implied. The author takes it for granted and common to him and his readers. This second layer is mostly passive. He begins to actively act and influence the reader only when the work passes into another era, to other readers, where this layer is new and unusual. This second layer could be called the "ideological background".

In The Tale of Igor's Campaign, the first layer - the effective layer - is contained in the author's calls for unity, for the defense of the Russian land, in the author's attempts to interpret the entire Russian history and individual historical facts in the spirit of his own historical concept and their political beliefs. “Open paganism”, expressed, for example, in the nominal mention of pagan gods, can be attributed to the same layer.

The second layer in The Tale of Igor's Campaign is hidden and can only be studied through analysis. This second layer includes, for example, general pagan ideas - about peculiar aspects human destiny, about the relationship between man and nature, about the cult of the Earth, Water, Kin, Sun and Light. They also include belief in omens, belief in the special connection of grandchildren with their grandfathers, etc.

Vladimir Monomakh's "instruction" is addressed specifically to the princes: "And sit down to think with the retinue, or straighten people, or go fishing, or ride ..." (p. 158).

The same "activity" of comparisons as in "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" is also noted by O. M. Freidenberg for Homer. Thus, the hallmark of the realism of an extended comparison becomes efficiency, movement, speed. What does it convey? Affect, noise, cry, all kinds of movements: the flight of a bird, the attack of a predator, the chase, boiling, surf, storm, blizzard, fires and spills, stormy streams downpours, the whirling of insects, the swift running of a horse... Even in a stone one notices a flight, in a star - a moment of scattered sparks, in a tower - a fall. Comparisons are filled with the noise of the elements, the howling and groaning of the waters, the buzzing of flies, the bleating of sheep, the roar of animals... This is how everything is depicted, even a thing: the wheel turns, the skin stretches, the cauldron boils, etc. We have before us processes, not statuary-changed positions; and among them are labor processes like threshing, winnowing, harvesting, hunting, handicrafts and needlework ”(O. M. Freidenberg. The origin of the epic comparison (based on the Iliad). - Proceedings of the anniversary scientific session. 1819–1944. Leningrad State University, L., 1946, p. 113).

The world of the "Word" is a large world of easy, uncomplicated action, a world of rapidly occurring events unfolding in a vast space. The heroes of The Word move with fantastic speed and act almost effortlessly. The point of view from above dominates (cf. the “raised horizon” in ancient Russian miniatures and icons). The author sees the Russian land as if from a great height, covers vast spaces with his mind's eye, as if "flies with his mind under the clouds", "prowls through the fields to the mountains."

In this lightest of worlds, as soon as the horses begin to neigh behind Sula, the glory of victory is already ringing in Kyiv; the trumpets will only begin to sound in Novgorod-Seversky, as the banners are already in Putivl - the troops are ready to march. The girls sing on the Danube - their voices wind across the sea to Kyiv (the road from the Danube was sea). Heard in the distance and the ringing of bells. The author easily transfers the story from one area to another. He reaches Kyiv from Polotsk. And even the sound of a stirrup is heard in Chernigov from Tmutorokan. The speed with which the actors, animals and birds move is characteristic. They rush, jump, rush, fly over vast spaces. People move with extraordinary speed, they roam the fields like a wolf, they are transported, hanging on a cloud, they soar like eagles. As soon as you mount a horse, as you can already see the Don, there definitely does not exist a multi-day and laborious steppe transition through the waterless steppe. The prince can fly "from afar". He can soar high, expanding in the windpax. His thunderstorms flow through the lands. Yaroslavna is compared with a bird and wants to fly over a bird. Warriors are light - like falcons and jackdaws. They are living shereshirs, arrows. Heroes not only move with ease, but effortlessly stab and cut enemies. They are strong as animals: tours, pardus, wolves. For Kuryans there is no difficulty and no effort. They gallop with strained bows (stretching a bow in a gallop is unusually difficult), their bodies are open and their sabers are sharp. They run through the field like gray wolves. They know the paths and the yarugas. Vsevolod's warriors can scatter the Volga with their oars and pour out the Don with their helmets.

The special dynamism of the Lay is also associated with this “light” space.

The author of The Lay prefers dynamic descriptions to static ones. It describes actions, not stationary states. Speaking of nature, he does not give landscapes, but describes the reaction of nature to events occurring in people. He describes the approaching thunderstorm, the help of nature in Igor's flight, the behavior of birds and animals, the sadness of nature or its joy. Nature in the Lay is not the background of events, not the scenery in which the action takes place - it is itself the protagonist, something like an ancient choir. Nature reacts to events as a kind of "narrator", expresses the author's opinion and author's emotions.

"Light" space corresponds to the humanity of the surrounding nature. Everything in space is interconnected not only physically, but also emotionally.

This method of characterizing events and expressing the author's attitude towards them is extremely characteristic of the Lay, giving it emotionality and, at the same time, a special persuasiveness of this emotionality. It is, as it were, an appeal to the environment: to people, nations, to nature itself. Emotionality, as it were, is not authorial, but objectively existing in the environment, “spilled” in space, flows in it.

All this is not in the fairy tale, but much is suggested here by the annals and other works of ancient Russian literature.

The only exception is Kazan History, most of which is devoted to Russian campaigns against Kazan. The same continues in the 18th and 19th centuries. Not a single one of the great victories over the Turks in the 18th century produced a great work, nor campaigns in the Caucasus and Central Asia. But the "Caucasian theme", like "Kazan History", led to a kind of idealization of the Caucasian peoples - up to the Caucasian army itself, dressed by order of Yermolov in the clothes of the Caucasian highlanders.

Only the defensive war gave food to the creative imagination of great writers: the Patriotic War of 1812 and the defense of Sevastopol. It is remarkable that "War and Peace" does not refer to the foreign campaign of the Russian army. "War and Peace" ends at the borders of Russia. And this is very revealing.

I don't think this is a feature specific to Russian literature. Let us recall the "Song of Roland" and other works of the Middle Ages. Let's remember the works of the New Age.

Documents have always been part of the annals. Let us recall the treaties with the Greeks of 911 and 941, the texts of which are included in the Tale of Bygone Years. And in the future, along with literary materials (historical stories, military stories, lives of saints and sermons), written documents very often got into the annals, not to mention “oral” documents - speeches of princes at a veche, before a campaign or before a battle, on princely photographs: they were also transmitted, if possible, with documentary accuracy. However, only in the 16th century did the chronicle itself begin to be fully realized as a document - exposing or justifying, giving rights or taking them away. And this leaves an imprint on the style of the chronicle: responsibility makes the presentation of the chronicle more magnificent and sublime. Chronicle adjoins the style of the second monumentalism. And this pretentious style is a kind of fusion of oratory with state office work.

Both developed to a high degree in the 16th century and intertwined with each other at the peaks, that is, in literary works.

As instructions in relation to the rulers of states, not only the “Secret of the Secret”, “Stephanit and Ikhnilat”, “The Tale of Queen Dinara”, many works of Maxim the Greek, the messages of the elder Philotheus and “The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir” - the latter with a statement of theories ( not always similar) the rights of Russian sovereigns to the throne and their role in world history, but also chronographs and chronicles, annals and chroniclers. State power, interpreted in different ways, is nevertheless always placed high, the authority of the sovereign is affirmed everywhere, the responsibility of sovereigns to the country, subjects and world history, the right to interfere in the fate of the world is affirmed everywhere. On the one hand, this destroyed the old ideas about the Grand Duke as a simple owner of people and lands, but, on the other hand, elevating the power of the sovereign to the sole representative and defender of Orthodoxy after the fall of the independence of all Orthodox states, created the prerequisites for the Moscow sovereigns to be confident in their complete infallibility. and the right to interfere even in every detail of private life.

On the “softness of the voice” of ancient Russian literature. This is not at all a reproach to her. The volume sometimes gets in the way, annoying. She is obsessive, unceremonious. I have always preferred "quiet poetry". And about the beauty of the ancient Russian "quietness" I remember the following case. At one of the conferences of the sector of ancient Russian literature of the Pushkin House, where there were reports on ancient Russian music, Ivan Nikiforovich Zavoloko, now deceased, spoke. He was an Old Believer, graduated from Charles University in Prague, knew perfectly well languages and classical European music, the manner of performing vocal works. But he also loved ancient Russian singing, he knew it, he sang it himself. And so he showed how to sing on the hooks. And it was necessary not to stand out in the choir, to sing in an undertone. And, standing on the pulpit, he sang several works of the XVI-XVII centuries. He sang alone, but as a member of the choir. Quiet, calm, secluded. It was a living contrast to the manner in which some of the choirs now perform ancient Russian works.

As for Avvakum, it is on the verge of modern times.

Strikingly "empathy" Archpriest Avvakum. Regarding the loss of the son of the noblewoman Morozova, Avvakum writes to her: “It’s already uncomfortable for you to lash with a rosary and it’s not comfortable to look at how he rides a horse and stroke his head - do you remember how it used to be?” The feeling of the absence of a son is clearly conveyed to physiology: there is no one to pat on the head! Here you can see Avvakum the artist.

“Russian classical literature” is not just “first-class literature” and is not, as it were, “exemplary” literature, which has become classically impeccable due to its high purely literary merits.

And I would first of all note that the creators of Russian classical literature were authors who had enormous “public responsibility”.

The best works of Russian classical literature never offer readers ready-made answers to the social and moral questions posed. The authors do not moralize, but seem to address the readers: “Think about it!”, “Decide for yourself!”, “Look what happens in life!”, “Do not hide from responsibility for everything and everyone!” Therefore, answers to questions are given by the author together with the readers.

Russian classical literature is a grandiose dialogue with the people, with their intelligentsia in the first place. This is an appeal to the conscience of readers.

Russian literature has always drawn its enormous strength from Russian reality, from the social experience of the people, but foreign literatures have also served as a help; first Byzantine, Bulgarian, Czech, Serbian, Polish, ancient literature, and from the Petrine era - all the literature of Western Europe.

The literature of our time has grown on the basis of Russian classical literature.

We must not lose anything from our great heritage.

Works of great art always admit of several explanations, equally correct. This is surprising and not always even clear. I will give examples.

More limitedly, mainly in the ideological aspect, a literary work is explained in terms of the history of social thought (there are fewer explanations of the style of works). It is not enough to say that every work of art must be explained in the "context of culture." This is possible, this is correct, but not everything boils down to this. The fact is that the work can equally be explained in the "context of itself." In other words (and I'm not afraid to say it) - immanently, to be explained as a closed system. The fact is that the “external” explanation of a work of art (historical setting, the influence of the aesthetic views of its time, the history of literature - its position at the time the work was written, etc.) - to a certain extent, “dismembers” the work; commenting and explaining the work to some extent splits the work, loses attention to the whole. Even if we talk about the style of a work and at the same time understand the style in a limited way - within the limits of the form - then the stylistic explanation, losing sight of the whole, cannot give a complete explanation of the work as an aesthetic phenomenon. Therefore, there is always a need to consider any work of art as a kind of unity, a manifestation of aesthetic and ideological consciousness.

When a great poet writes about something, it is important not only what he writes and how, but also what he writes. The text is not indifferent to the one who wrote it, in what era, in what country, and even to the one who pronounces it and in what country. That is why the American "critical school" in literary criticism is extremely limited in its conclusions.

And I burned everything I worshipped

He bowed to everything that he burned.

How did it get from Remigius to Turgenev? But without finding this out, you can’t even write about it in literary commentaries.

The topics of the books are: reality as potential literature and literature as potential reality (the latter topic requires scientific wit).

(I) Russian classical literature is not just “first-class literature” and not, as it were, “exemplary” literature, which has become classically impeccable due to its high purely literary merits. (2) All these virtues, of course, are in Russian classical literature, but this is far from all. (H) This literature has its own special face, individuality, characteristics characteristic of its day. (4) And I would first of all note that the creators of Russian classical literature were authors who had enormous social responsibility. (5) Russian classical literature is not entertaining, although it is highly addictive. (6) This fascination is of a special nature: it is determined by the offer to the reader to solve complex moral and social problems - to solve together, both for the author and readers. (7) The best works of Russian classical literature never offer readers ready-made answers to the social and moral questions posed. (8) The authors do not moralize, but, as it were, appeal to readers: “Think about it!”, “Decide for yourself!”, “Look what happens in life!”, “Do not hide from responsibility for everything and for everyone!”. (9) Therefore, answers to questions are given by the author together with readers. (10) Russian classical literature is a grandiose dialogue with the people, with their intelligentsia in the first place. (11) This is an appeal to the conscience of readers. . (12) The moral and social issues with which Russian classical literature addresses its readers are not temporary, not momentary, although they were of particular importance for their time. (IZ) Thanks to their eternity, these questions were of such great importance to us and will be so for all subsequent generations. (14) Russian classical literature is eternally alive, it does not become history, only the history of literature. (15) She talks with us, her conversation is fascinating, elevates us both aesthetically and ethically, makes us wiser, increases our life experience, allows us to live ten lives together with her heroes, experience the experience of many generations and apply it in our own own life. (16) It gives us the opportunity to experience the happiness of living not only “for ourselves”, but also for many others - for the “humiliated and insulted”, for “little people”, for unknown heroes and for the moral triumph of the highest human qualities ... ( 17) The origins of this humanism of Russian literature are in its centuries-old development, when literature sometimes became the only voice of conscience, the only force that determined the national self-consciousness of the Russian people - literature and folklore close to it. (18) It was at the time of feudal fragmentation, at the time of the foreign yoke, when literature, the Russian language were the only forces binding the people. (19) We must not lose anything from our great heritage. (20) Book reading and veneration of books should preserve both for us and for future generations its high purpose, its high place in our lives, in shaping our life positions, in choosing ethical and aesthetic values, in not allowing to litter our consciousness of various kinds of "pulp" and meaningless, purely entertaining bad taste. (21) The essence of progress in literature is the expansion of the aesthetic and ideological possibilities of literature, which are created as a result of aesthetic accumulation, the accumulation of all kinds of literature experience and the expansion of its “memory”. (D. Likhachev)
1. Which statement contradicts the author's point of view? 1) Russian classical literature has become a fact of history. 2) Fascination is characteristic of Russian literature. 3) The moral and social questions of Russian literature are timeless. 4) In certain historical periods, Russian literature was the only force that determined the national identity of the Russian people. 2. Define the style and type of text. 1) artistic style; reasoning 2) scientific style; description 3) journalistic style with elements of popular science; reasoning 4) popular science style; reasoning 3. Which word contains a disparaging assessment of the phenomenon it expresses? 1) litter 2) reading 3) moralize 4) bad taste 4. How is the word formed? impeccable in sentence 1? 5. What part of speech is the word thanks to(proposition 13)? 6. From sentences 14 - 16 write out the phrase (s) with attributive relations, the dependent word of which (s) is connected with the main one by the type of adjunction. 7. Determine which part of the sentence is the infinitive been through(proposition 15). 1) predicate 2) addition 3) definition 4) circumstance 8. Among sentences 17-21, find a sentence with a separate definition that has homogeneous members. Write the number of this offer. 9. Among sentences 1 - 15, find complex sentences with a concessive clause. Write the numbers of these proposals. AT 7. Among sentences 1 - 10, find a sentence that is connected with the previous one using lexical repetition, pronouns. and introductory word. Write the number of this offer. (l) What a mirror of life is our language! (2) No, he is truly ugly

Scenery – general form terrain.

Tale- the genre of narrative literature.

Publicism- a type of literature and journalism that covers issues of politics and public life.

Story- short storytelling.

Reputation- a general opinion about someone.

Sculpture– 1. The art of creating three-dimensional works of art by carving, molding and casting, forging, chasing. 2. Works of such art. Sculpture can be easel (statues, portraits, genre scenes) and monumental (monuments, decorative sculpture in gardens and parks, reliefs on buildings, memorial ensembles).

Comparison- a word or expression containing the assimilation of one object to another.

Epigraph- quotes placed before the text, revealing the artistic intent of the author.

Epistolary form- letter, message

Epithet- a definition that gives the expression figurativeness and emotionality.

Application

D. S. Likhachev "The Earth is our home"

Once (about a dozen or two years ago) the following image came to my mind: the Earth is our tiny house, flying in an immensely large space. Then I discovered that this image simultaneously with me came independently to dozens of publicists.

It is so obvious that it is already born hackneyed, stereotyped, although this does not lose its strength and persuasiveness.

Our house!

But the Earth is the home of billions and billions of people who lived before us!

This is a defenseless museum flying in a colossal space, a collection of hundreds of thousands of museums, a close collection of works of hundreds of thousands of geniuses (oh, if you could roughly count how many universally recognized geniuses there were on earth!).

And not only works of geniuses!

How many customs, lovely traditions.

How much has been accumulated, saved. How many possibilities.

The earth is all covered with diamonds, and under them there are so many diamonds that are still waiting to be cut, made into diamonds.

This is something of unimaginable value.

And most importantly: there is no second life in the Universe!

This can be easily proved mathematically.

Millions of almost unbelievable conditions had to converge in order to create a great human culture.

And what is there before this incredible value of all our national ambitions, quarrels, personal and state revenge ("retaliatory actions")!

The globe is literally "stuffed" with cultural values.

This is billions of times (I repeat - billions of times) the Hermitage enlarged and expanded into all areas of the spirit.

And this incredible global jewel is rushing at an insane speed in the black space of the Universe.

The Hermitage rushing through outer space! Terrible for him.

The Pre-Raphaelites compiled a "List of the Immortals", it includes: Jesus Christ, the author of the book of Job, Shakespeare, Homer, Dante, Chaucer, Leonardo da Vinci, Goethe, Kite, Shelley, Alfred the Great, Landor, Thackeray, Washington, Mrs. Browning, Raphael, Patmore, Longfellow, author of Stories after Nature, Tennyson, Boccaccio, Fra Angelico, Isaiah, Phidias, early Gothic architects, Gibertti, Spencer, Hogarth, Kosciuszko, Byron, Wordsworth, Cervantes, Joan of Arc, Columbus, Giorgione, Titian, Poussin, Milton, Bacon, Newton, Po. Everything!

Isn't it curious?

It would be nice (interesting) if such lists of immortals were compiled more often: in different countries and in different eras.

For Russians of the same time, it would have been completely different, and especially in our time.

But someone would remain unchanged in these lists: Shakespeare and Dante, for example.

And someone would be added to everyone: L. Tolstoy and Dostoevsky, for example, compared with the above list of Pre-Raphaelites.
D. S. Likhachev "How the Earth cries"

The Earth, the Universe has its own sorrow, its own grief ”But the Earth does not cry with tears - drunkards, freaks, underdeveloped children, neglected, abandoned old people, crippled, sick... And she also cries over uselessly cut down forests, bank falls in reservoirs overflowing with the tears of the Earth, flooded lands, meadows that have ceased to cherish herds on themselves and serve as hayfields for people, asphalt yards with stinking tanks, between which children play. Shamefully the Earth is covered with yellow “industrial” smokes, acid rains, all living things, listed in the red funeral books, are hidden forever. The Earth becomes a miserable "biosphere".

Therefore, take care of youth until old age. Appreciate all the good things that you acquired in your youth, do not squander the wealth of youth. Nothing acquired in youth goes unnoticed. Habits developed in youth last a lifetime. Skills in work - too. Get used to work - and work will always bring joy. And how important it is for human happiness! There is nothing more unhappy than a lazy person who always avoids work, effort...

Both in youth and in old age. Good habits of youth will make life easier, bad habits will complicate it and make it more difficult.

And further. There is a Russian proverb: "Take care of honor from a young age." All the deeds committed in youth remain in the memory. The good ones will please, the bad ones will not let you sleep!

D. S. Likhachev "On Russian nature"

Nature has its own culture. Chaos is not the natural state of nature. On the contrary, chaos (if it exists at all) is an unnatural state of nature. What is the culture of nature? Let's talk about wildlife. First of all, she lives in society, community. There are "plant associations": trees do not live mixed up, and known species are combined with others, but far from all. Pine trees, for example, have certain lichens, mosses, mushrooms, bushes, etc. as neighbors. Every mushroom picker knows this. Known rules of behavior are characteristic not only of animals (all dog breeders and cat lovers are familiar with this, even those living outside nature, in the city), but also of plants. Trees stretch towards the sun in different ways - sometimes with hats, so as not to interfere with each other, and sometimes spreadingly, in order to cover and protect another tree species that begins to grow under their cover. Pine grows under the cover of alder. The pine grows, and then the alder that has done its job dies. I observed this long-term process near Leningrad, in Toksovo, where during the First World War all pine trees were cut down and pine forests were replaced by thickets of alder, which then cherished young pines under its branches. Now there are pines again. Nature is "social" in its own way. Its “sociality” also lies in the fact that it can live next to a person, coexist with him, if he, in turn, is social and intellectual himself, protects her, does not cause irreparable damage to her, does not cut down forests to the end, does not litter rivers. .. The Russian peasant created the beauty of Russian nature with his centuries-old labor. He plowed the land and thus gave it certain dimensions. He put a measure to his arable land, passing through it with a plow. The frontiers in Russian nature are commensurate with the work of a man and his horse, his ability to go with a horse behind a plow or a plow, before turning back, and then forward again. Smoothing the ground, a person removed all sharp edges, mounds, stones in it. Russian nature is soft, it is well-groomed by the peasant in his own way. Walking a peasant behind a plow, a plow, a harrow not only created "streaks" of rye, but leveled the boundaries of the forest, formed its edges, created smooth transitions from forest to field, from field to river. The poetry of the transformation of nature through the work of a plowman is well conveyed by A. Koltsov in the “Song of the Plowman”, which begins with the prodding of a sivka:

Well! trudge, sivka,

Arable land, tithe.

Let's whiten the iron

About the damp earth.

The Russian landscape was mainly created by the efforts of two great cultures: the culture of man, which softened the harshness of nature, and the culture of nature, which in turn softened all the imbalances that man unwittingly brought into it. The landscape was created, on the one hand, by nature, ready to master and cover up everything that a person violated in one way or another, and on the other hand, by a person who softened the earth with his labor and softened the landscape. Both cultures, as it were, corrected each other and created its humanity and freedom.

The nature of the East European Plain is meek, without high mountains, but also not impotently flat, with a network of rivers ready to be “communication routes”, and with a sky not obscured by dense forests, with sloping hills and endless roads smoothly flowing around all the hills.

And with what care the man stroked the hills, descents and ascents! Here the plowman's experience created an aesthetic of parallel lines - lines running in unison with each other and with nature, like voices in ancient Russian chants. The plowman laid furrow to furrow - as he combed it, as he laid hair to hair. So a log is placed in a hut to a log, a block to a block, in a fence - a pole to a pole, and they themselves line up in a rhythmic row above the river or along the road - like a herd that has gone out to drink.

Therefore, the relationship between nature and man is the relationship between two cultures, each of which is “social” in its own way, sociable, has its own “rules of conduct”. And their meeting is built on peculiar moral grounds. Both cultures are the fruit of historical development, and the development of human culture has been carried out under the influence of nature for a long time (since the existence of mankind), and the development of nature with its multimillion-year existence is relatively recent and not everywhere under the influence of human culture. One (the culture of nature) can exist without the other (human) and the other (human) cannot. But still, during many past centuries, there was a balance between nature and man. It would seem that it should have left both parts equal, somewhere in the middle. But no, the balance is everywhere its own and everywhere on some kind of its own, special basis, with its own axis. In the north in Russia there was more "nature", and the farther south and closer to the steppe, the more "man".

Anyone who has been to Kizhi has probably seen how a stone ridge stretches along the entire island, like the backbone of a giant animal. A road runs along this ridge. The ridge was formed over centuries. Peasants freed their fields from stones - boulders and cobblestones - and dumped them here, by the road. A well-groomed relief was formed big island. The whole spirit of this relief is permeated with a sense of centuries. And it was not for nothing that the family of storytellers Ryabinins lived here from generation to generation, from whom many epics were recorded.

The landscape of Russia throughout its heroic space seems to pulsate, it either discharges and becomes more natural, then it thickens in villages, graveyards and cities, it becomes more human. In the countryside and in the city, the same rhythm of parallel lines continues, which begins with arable land. Furrow to furrow, log to log, street to street. Large rhythmic divisions are combined with small, fractional ones. One flows smoothly into the other. The old Russian city does not oppose nature. He goes to nature through the suburbs. "Suburb" is a word that was deliberately created to connect the idea of the city and nature. Suburbia is near the city, but it is also near nature. The suburb is a village with trees, with wooden semi-village houses. Hundreds of years ago, he clung to the walls of the city with gardens and gardens, to the rampart and the moat, he clung to the surrounding fields and forests, taking from them a few trees, a few vegetable gardens, a little water in his ponds and wells. And all this is in the ebb and flow of hidden and obvious rhythms - beds, streets, houses, logs, blocks of pavements and bridges. For Russians, nature has always been freedom, will, freedom. Listen to the language: take a walk in the wild, go free. Will is the absence of worries about tomorrow, this is carelessness, blissful immersion in the present. Remember Koltsov:

Oh you, my steppe,

The steppe is free,

You are wide, steppe,

Spread out

To the Black Sea

Moved up!

Koltsov has the same delight before the vastness of freedom.

Wide space has always owned the hearts of Russians. It resulted in concepts and representations that are not found in other languages. What is the difference between will and freedom? The fact that free will is freedom, connected with space, with nothing obstructed by space. And the concept of melancholy, on the contrary, is connected with the concept of crowding, depriving a person of space. To oppress a person is to deprive him of space in the literal and figurative sense of the word.

Free will! Even barge haulers who walked along the tow line, harnessed to a strap like horses, and sometimes together with horses, felt this will. They walked along a tow line, a narrow coastal path, and all around was freedom for them. Labor is forced, and nature is free all around. And nature needed a big man, open, with a huge outlook. That's why it's so loved folk song polyushko-field. Will is large spaces through which you can walk and walk, wander, swim along the flow of large rivers and for long distances, breathe free air, the air of open places, breathe in the wind widely with your chest, feel the sky above your head, be able to move in different directions - as you please.

What is free will is well defined in Russian lyrical songs, especially robber ones, which, however, were created and sung not by robbers at all, but by peasants yearning for a free will and a better life. In these bandit songs, the peasant dreamed of carelessness and retribution for his offenders.

The Russian concept of courage is daring, and daring is courage in a broad movement. It is courage multiplied by scope to bring out that courage. One cannot be daring, bravely sitting out in a fortified place. The word "daring" is very difficult to translate into foreign languages. Courage still in the first half of the XIX century was incomprehensible. Griboyedov laughs at Skalozub, putting into his mouth such an answer to Famusov’s question, for which he has “an order in his buttonhole”: “For the third of August; we sat down in a trench: He was given with a bow, around my neck. It's funny how you can "sit down", and even in a "trench", where you can't move at all, and get a military award for it?

Yes, and at the root of the word "feat" is also "stuck" movement: "feat", that is, what is done by the movement, prompted by the desire to move something motionless.

I remember as a child a Russian dance on the Volga steamer of the Kavkaz and Mercury company. The loader danced (they were called hookers). He danced, throwing out his arms and legs in different directions, and in excitement tore off his hat from his head, throwing it far into the crowded spectators, and shouted: “I’ll tear myself! I'll break! Oh, I'm torn!" He tried to take up as much space as possible with his body.

Russian lyrical lingering song - it also has a longing for space. And it is best sung outside the home, in the wild, in the field.

The bells had to be heard as far as possible. And when they hung a new bell on the bell tower, they purposely sent people to listen to how many miles away it could be heard.

Fast driving is also a desire for space.

But the same special attitude to open space and space is also seen in epics. Mikula Selyaninovich follows the plow from end to end of the field. Volga has to catch up with him for three days on young Bukhara colts.
They heard a plowman in a pure poly,

Plowman-plowman.

They rode all day in pure poly,

The plowman was not run over,

And the next day they drove from morning to evening.

The plowman was not run over,

And on the third day they rode from morning to evening,

Plowman and ran over.

There is also a sense of space in the beginnings of epics describing Russian nature, and in the desires of heroes, Volga, for example:
Volga wanted a lot of wisdom:

Pike-fish to walk the Volga in the blue seas,

Like a falcon, fly the Volga under the clouds.

Wolf and roam in the open fields.

Or in the beginning of the epic "About Nightingale Budimirovich":
“Is the height, the height under heaven,

Depth, depth of the akian-sea,

Wide expanse over the whole earth.

Deep whirlpools of the Dnieper...

Even the description of the towers built by Nightingale Budimirovich's "choir squad" in the garden near Zabava Putyatichna contains the same delight in the vastness of nature.
Well decorated in towers:

The sun is in the sky - the sun is in the tower;

A month in the sky - a month in the tower;

Stars in the sky - stars in the tower;

Dawn in the sky - dawn in the tower

And all the beauty of heaven.

Delight in front of the open spaces is already present in ancient Russian literature - in the Primary Chronicle, in "The Tale of Igor's Campaign", in "The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land", in "The Life of Alexander Nevsky", and in almost every work of the most ancient period of the XI-XIII centuries . Everywhere, events either cover vast spaces, as in The Tale of Igor's Campaign, or take place among vast spaces with responses in distant lands, as in The Life of Alexander Nevsky. Since ancient times, Russian culture has considered freedom and space to be the greatest aesthetic and ethical good for man.
D. S. Likhachev "On old age"

Dealing with old people is not easy. It is clear. But you need to communicate, and you need to make this communication easy and simple.

Old age makes people grouchier, more talkative (remember the saying: “The weather is rainier by autumn, and people are more talkative by old age”). It is not easy for the young to endure the deafness of the old. Old people will not hear, they will answer inappropriately, they will ask again. It is necessary, when talking with them, to raise your voice so that the old people can hear. And by raising your voice, you involuntarily begin to get annoyed (our feelings often depend on our behavior than behavior on feelings).

An old person is often offended (increased resentment is a property of old people). In a word, not only is it difficult to be old, but it is also difficult to be with the old.

And yet the young must understand that we will all be old. And we must also remember: the experience of the old oh, how it can come in handy. And experience, and knowledge, and wisdom, and humor, and stories about the past, and moralizing.

Let us recall Pushkin's Arina Rodionovna. A young man may say: “But my grandmother is not Arina Rodionovna at all!” But I am convinced of the opposite: any grandmother, if her grandchildren want, can be Arina Rodionovna. Not for everyone, Arina Rodionovna would have become what Pushkin made her for himself.

Arina Rodionovna had signs of old age: for example, she fell asleep while working. Remember:
And the spokes are slowing down every minute

In your wrinkled hands.

What does the word "delay" mean? She did not always hesitate, but "per minute", from time to time, that is, as it happens with old people falling asleep from time to time. And Pushkin knew how to find cute features in Arina Rodionovna's senile weaknesses: charm and poetry.

Pay attention to the love and care with which Pushkin writes about the senile features of his nanny:

Longing, forebodings, worries

They squeeze your chest all the time,

That makes you wonder...

The poems were left unfinished.

Arina Rodionovna became close to all of us precisely because Pushkin was next to her. If there had been no Pushkin, she would have remained in the short memory of those around her as a talkative, constantly dozing and preoccupied old woman. But Pushkin found the best features in her, transformed her. Pushkin's muse was kind. People, communicating, create each other. Some people know how to awaken their best features in those around them. Others do not know how to do this and themselves become unpleasant, tiresome, irritable, drearily boring.

The old people are not only grouchy, but also kind, not only talkative, but also excellent storytellers, not only deaf, but have a good ear for old songs.

In almost every person different features are combined. Of course, some features predominate, others are hidden, crushed. We must be able to awaken them in people best qualities and ignore minor flaws. Hurry up to establish good relations with people. Almost always good relations are established from the first words. Then it's harder.

How to be in old age? How to overcome its shortcomings? Old age is not just fading away, calming down, a gradual transition to peace (I can say - to "eternal peace"), but just the opposite: it is a whirlpool of unforeseen, chaotic, destructive forces. This is a powerful element. Some kind of funnel that sucks a person, from which he must sail away, move away, get rid of, with which he must fight, overcome it.

Not just a decrease in memory, but a distortion memory work, no fading creative possibilities, but their unforeseen, sometimes chaotic grinding, which should not be succumbed. This is not a decrease in susceptibility, but a distortion of ideas about the outside world, as a result of which an old man begins to live in some special, his own world.

With old age, you can not play giveaway; she needs to be attacked. It is necessary to mobilize all the intellectual forces in oneself so as not to go with the flow, but to be able to intuitively use zaoticism in order to move in the right direction. It is necessary to have a goal accessible to old age (counting both shortening terms and distortion of opportunities).

Old age sets up "wolf pits" that should be avoided.
D. S. Likhachev "Russian classical literature"

Russian Classical Literature” is not just “first-class literature” and not “exemplary” literature, as it were, which has become classically impeccable due to its high purely literary merits.

And I would first of all note that the creators of Russian classical literature were authors who had enormous “public responsibility”.

Russian classical literature is not entertaining, although fascination is characteristic of it to a high degree. This is the fascination of a special property: it is determined by the offer to the reader to solve complex moral and social problems - to solve together: both the author and the readers. The best works of Russian classical literature never offer readers ready-made answers to the social and moral questions posed. The authors do not moralize, but seem to address the readers: “Think about it!”, “Decide for yourself!”, “Look what happens in life!”, “Do not hide from responsibility for everything and everyone!” Therefore, answers to questions are given by the author together with the readers.

Russian classical literature is a grandiose dialogue with the people, with their intelligentsia in the first place. This is an appeal to the conscience of readers.

The moral and social questions with which Russian classical literature addresses its readers are not temporary, not momentary, although they were of particular importance for their time. Due to their "eternity" these questions are of such great importance for us and will be so for all subsequent generations.

The origins of this humanism in Russian literature lie in its centuries-old development, when literature sometimes became the only voice of conscience, the only force that determined the national self-consciousness of the Russian people - literature and folklore close to it. This was at the time of feudal fragmentation; at the time of the foreign yoke, when literature, the Russian language were the only forces binding the people.

Russian literature has always drawn its enormous strength from Russian reality, from the social experience of the people, but foreign literatures have also served as a help; first Byzantine, Bulgarian, Czech, Serbian, Polish, ancient literature, and from the time of Peter the Great - all the literature of Western Europe.

The literature of our time has grown on the basis of Russian classical literature.

We must not lose anything from our great heritage.

“Book reading” and “reverence for books” must preserve for us and for future generations their high purpose, their high place in our lives, in shaping our life positions, in choosing ethical and aesthetic values, in order not to let our consciousness be littered various kinds of "pulp" and meaningless purely entertaining bad taste.

Once I was returning from a trip to Astrakhan and back. The ship is modern, huge, comfortable; it has over 300 passengers.

But there was not one who would remain indifferent at the sight of flooded forests and tattered architectural monuments on the banks. No sooner had one, once beautiful, building with a collapsed roof disappeared from sight than another appeared in sight. And so all twenty-two days of travel. Trouble, trouble beats with swan wings!

And it was even more upsetting when we did not see the building at all, which until recently had been rising on the shore, but ruthlessly demolished under the pretext that its appearance had become ugly due to neglect and desolation.

This is blatant irresponsibility and mismanagement!

Is it really impossible to adapt perishing churches, old estates to the needs of the surrounding population, or leave them as monuments, signs of the past, covering them only with solid roofs, preventing further destruction?!

After all, almost all of them are quite beautiful, placed in the most prominent places.

They weep through the eye sockets of their empty windows, looking at the passing palaces of rest.

And it upset everyone. There was not a single person whom the spectacle of a passing culture would leave indifferent.

We do not preserve antiquity, not because there is a lot of it, not because there are few connoisseurs of the beauty of the past among us who love our native history and native art, but because we are in too much of a hurry, we are too expecting an immediate return. But the monuments of antiquity bring up, as well as well-groomed forests, they bring up a caring attitude towards the surrounding nature.

We need to feel ourselves in history, understand our significance in modern life, even if it is private, small, but still kind to others.

Everyone can do something good and leave a good memory for themselves.

To keep the memory of others is to leave a good memory of yourself.

Application

Cherished words of D.S. Likhachev

Biography of Likhachev

Likhachev Dmitry Sergeevich - literary critic, historian, art critic, culturologist, public figure. Born in an intelligent St. Petersburg family of an electrical engineer.

In 1923, Likhachev entered the Faculty of Social Sciences at Petrograd University, where he studied at the ethnological and linguistic department in two sections at once - Romano-Germanic and Slavic-Russian.

On February 3, 1928, at a meeting of the "Space Academy of Sciences" (which included students from several institutes), he made a report in which he half-jokingly proved the advantages of the old spelling. The text of the speech was written according to the canceled rules and was a parodic imitation of the learned writings of a medieval scribe. In the report, he openly spoke about the oppression of the Russian government by the Soviet government. Orthodox Church. A few days later he was arrested.

Was a prisoner Solovetsky Monastery. In 1931 he was transferred to the construction of the White Sea-Baltic Canal, and a year later (1932) he was released ahead of schedule. In 1936, his criminal record was expunged. For several years after returning from prison, he worked as an editor and proofreader. It was impossible to get a job elsewhere, in addition, he hoped that in an inconspicuous position he would be able to avoid new repressions. From 1938 he conducted scientific work at the Institute of Russian Literature (Pushkin House), (since 1954) he headed the sector of ancient Russian literature. Professor at Leningrad University (1946-1953). Author of dozens of books and hundreds of articles.

WITH1939 Likhachev became an "ancientist" specialistVareas of the history of Russian literature.

During the Second World War, Likhachev did not leave his native city, despite dystrophy, he continued to engage in science.

D.S. Likhachev treated his great fame calmly.

He is the author of 39 research books on culture and ancient Russian literature, on the topics of morality, philosophy, historical poetics.

In 2000, D.S. Likhachev was posthumously awarded the State Prize of Russia for the development of the artistic direction of domestic television and the creation of the all-Russian state television channel "Culture".

№ 5 "All is calm at sea"

One strong impression from my childhood in Kuokkale. Easter weekHow and in all Russian Orthodox churches, it was allowed to call everyone and in any time. Father and we, two brothers, one day (we came to the dachas early in the spring) went to the bell tower to ring. How delightful it was to hear the ringing under the very bells!

There was then one incident that "glorified" my brother and me among all summer residents. The wind was blowing from the shore (the most dangerous). My older brother took off the blue curtain in our nursery, hoisted it on our boat and offered a ride under the "sail" to a completely domestic boy - the grandson of Senator Davydov.

The home boy Seryozha went to his grandmother and asked her permission to ride.

Grandma was a dandy girl with purple eyessat in a steel-coloured silk dress under a parasol. She only asked if Seryozha would get his feet wet: after all, there is always water at the bottom of the boat. She ordered Seryozha to put on galoshes.

Seryozha put on new shiny galoshes and got into the boat.

All this happened in front of my eyes. Go. The wind, quiet as always near the shore, intensified in the distance. The boat was driven. I watched from the shore and saw: the blue sail slowly tilted and disappeared. Grandmother, as she was in a corset and with an umbrella, walked on the water, stretching out her arms to her beloved Seryozha. After reaching the deep water, the violet-eyed grandmother fell unconscious.

And on the shore, behind a fence of sheets, the pro-rector of St. Petersburg University, the handsome Prozorovsky, was sunbathing. He watched his grandmother and when she fell, he rushed to save her. And, oh horror! - in shorts.

He picked up the purple-eyed grandmother and carried her to the shore. And I ran home with all my might.

Running up to our dacha, I slowed down and tried to be calm. The mother asked, obviously guessing that something had happened: “Is everything calm at sea?” I immediately replied: "All is calm at sea, but Misha is drowning."

These words of mine were remembered and remembered hundreds of times later in our family. They have become our family saying when suddenly something unpleasant happens.

And in the sea at that time the following happened. The home boy Seryozha, of course, could not swim. His brother began to save him and ordered him to throw off his galoshes. But Seryozha did not want to - either in order not to disobey his grandmother, or because he was sorry for the shiny galoshes with copper letters “S. D." ("Seryozha Davydov"). The brother threatened: "Dump, you fool, or I will leave you myself."

The threat worked, and boats and boats were already rowing from the shore.

Father arrived in the evening. My brother was taken to the second floor to flog, and then my father, without changing his habits, took us for a walk along the sea.

As expected, my brother and I walked ahead of our parents.

People who met said, pointing to my brother:“Savior, savior!”, and the “savior” walked gloomy, with a weeping face.

I was also praised for my "wise" restraint. And once, in a particularly strong storm, one of the people I met said to me: “Everything is calm at sea, but four booths were washed away and overturned.”

I immediately ran to the sea to look.

I still love storms, but I do not like the deceptive coastal wind.

№ 8. "External impressions"

Neither my family nor I, an eleven-twelve-year-old boy, of course, did not really understand what was happening, and was happening almost before our eyes, since we lived on Novoisakievskaya Street near St. Isaacievskaya Square. The family was poorly versed in politics. When in the early days February Revolution The “gordoviks” (as policemen were called in Petrograd) seized the tower of St. Isaac’s Cathedral and the attics of the Astoria Hotel and from there fired at any crowd that gathered, my parents were indignant with the “gordoviks” and were afraid to approach these places. But when the Gordoviks were dragged from their positions and the angry mob killed them, the parents were indignant at the cruelty of the crowd, not particularly entering into further discussion of events.

When my father and I walked along Bolshaya Morskaya and saw how they were building a house and carrying weights on their backs shod in bast shoes so as not to slip, the peasants who came to the city to work, I almost choked with pity and recalled with my father “ railroad» Nekrasov.

The same thing happened on any embankment in places where it was allowed to unload barges with bricks and firewood. Hefty rolled quickly, quickly, their wheelbarrows with heavy loads to climb, without stopping, on the narrow boards thrown from the sides of the barges to the embankment. We felt sorry for the Cathals, tried to imagine how they live apart from their families on these barges, how they freeze at night, how they yearn for their children, for the sake of whom, in essence, they earned their bread with hard work.

But when these same former loaders and porters, artisans and small employees went on free tickets to a ballet in Mariinskii Opera House and filled the stalls and boxes, the parents regretted the former brilliant brilliance of the blue Mariinsky Hall. The only thing that pleased parents at those performances was that the ballerinas danced no worse than before. Spesivtseva and Luke were just as magnificent, bowing to the new audience in the same way as before the old one.

But how wonderful it was! What a lesson in respect for the new audience the theater of that time gave us all!

The most important and at the same time the most difficult period in the formation of my scientific interests was, of course, university.

I entered Leningrad University a little earlier than the prescribed age: I was not yet 17 years old. A few months were missing. At that time they accepted mostly workers. It was almost the first year of admission to the university on a class basis. I was neither a worker nor the son of a worker, but an ordinary employee. Even then, notes and recommendations from influential people mattered. I am ashamed to admit that my father got me such a note, and it played a certain role in my admission.

There were professors "red" and just professors. However, there were no professors at all - this title, like academic degrees, was canceled. Doctoral dissertation defenses were conditional. Opponents concluded their speeches like this: “If it were a defense, I would vote for the award ...” The defense was called a dispute.

The division of the "conditional professorship" into "red" and "old" on the basis of how someone addressed us was just as arbitrary; "comrades" or "colleagues". The "Reds" knew less, but addressed the students as "comrades"; the old professors knew more, but said "colleagues" to the students. I did not take into account this conditional sign and went to everyone who seemed interesting to me.

I entered the Faculty of Social Sciences. The abbreviation FON was also deciphered as follows: "Faculty of expecting brides." But there were few "brides" there, by today's standards. It just seemed that there were a lot of them out of habit: after all, before the revolution, only men studied at the university.

What gave me the most being at the university? It is difficult to list all the things that I have learned and what I learned at the university. After all, the matter was not limited to listening to lectures and participating in classes.

The only thing I regret is that, that not everyone was able to visit.

№ 9. "Trust as a movement"

However, back to school time.

At school, I got the hang of drawing caricatures of teachers: just one or two lines. And one day at recess I drew everyone on the blackboard. And suddenly the teacher came in. I froze. But the teacher came up, laughed with us (and he himself was depicted on the board) and left without saying anything. And after two or three lessons, our class teacher came to the class and said: "Dima Likhachev, the director asks you to repeat all your caricatures on paper for our teacher's room."

We had smart teachers.

At the Lentovskaya school, where I studied, the students' own opinion was encouraged. There were frequent arguments in the class. Since then, I have been striving to maintain independence in my tastes and views.

The first time after moving to a state-owned apartment on the Petrograd side (Gatchinskaya, 16, or Lakhtinskaya, 9), I continued to study with May. In it, I experienced the very first reforms of the school, the transition to labor education (carpentry lessons were replaced by sawing firewood for heating the school), to joint education of boys and girls (girls from a neighboring school were transferred to our school), etc. But traveling to school in overcrowded trams became completely impossible, walking was even more difficult, since the difficulties in the then Petrograd with food were terrible. We ate duranda (pressed cake), oatmeal bread, sometimes we managed to get some frozen potatoes, we went on foot to Lakhta for milk and received it in exchange for things. I was transferred nearby to the Lentovskaya school on Plutalova Street. And again I ended up in a wonderful school.

A close relationship, friendship, a “common cause” formed between students and teachers. Teachers do not need to impose discipline with strict measures. Teachers could shame a student, and this was enough for the public opinion of the class to be against the offender and the mischief was not repeated. We were allowed to smoke, but none of the aborigines of the school used this right.

№ 11. Blockade

War broke out. At the recruiting station, with my constant ulcerative bleeding, I was completely rejected, and I was content with participation in self-defense, lived in the barracks at the institute, working as a "signalman" and on duty on the tower of the Pushkin House. I was in charge of a manual siren, which I activated during each enemy air raid. I slept now on the Krylov sofa, now on the big sofa from Spassky-Lutovinovo, and thought and thought. My wife tried to buy the whole ration at home for everyone, she got up at night to be the first to go to the store. Children were then ordered to be taken out of Leningrad, while adults remained. But we hid our children on Vyritsa, from where they were taken out just before the occupation by the Germans, the head of the proofreading publishing house of the Academy of Sciences MP Barmansky. If not for him, I would be left withoutfamilies. We in the Pushkin House did not even suspect that the enemy was so close to Leningrad, although we went to trench work - first at Luga, then at Pulkovo.

It is amazing that, despite the hunger and the physical work to save our valuables in the Pushkin House, despite all the nervous tension of those days (and perhaps precisely because of this nervous tension), my ulcerative pains completely stopped, and I found time to read and work.

The losses at our institute, in our family, among our friends and relatives were horrendous: more than half of my relatives and friends died from exhaustion. We have a very poor idea of how many people were taken away by hunger and all other deprivations.

Millions of people no longer know what the blockade was. It is impossible to imagine. And what about visitors, about foreigners?

In order to imagine a little what the blockade was like, you need to go to school when the lessons end. Look at these noisy children and imagine exactly them, but in tens of thousands, silently lying in their beds in frozen apartments, motionless, not even asking for food, but only looking at you expectantly.

I learned about the end of the war in the morning on the street - by the faces and behavior of passers-by: some laughed and hugged each other, others cried alone. What other event could cause so much joy and such a wave of grief? They cried for those who died, died of exhaustion in Leningrad, did not wait to meet their relatives, who turned out to be disfigured and disabled.

I do not remember only one thing: the feeling of vindictive triumph.

If people all over the world had and kept living feeling horror from the experience experienced during the war, modern politics would be built differently.

№ 10. Floors of Care

Floors of care. Caring strengthens relationships between people. Strengthens the family, strengthens friendship, strengthens fellow villagers, residents of one city, one country.

The feeling of caring for another appears very early, especiallyin girls. The girl does not speak yet, but is already trying to take care of the doll, nursing her. Boys, very young, like to pick mushrooms, fish. Berries and mushrooms are also loved by girls. And after all, they collect not only for themselves, but for the whole family.

Gradually, children become objects of ever higher care and they themselves begin to show real and wide care - not only about the family, but also about the school, where parental care has placed them, about their village, city and country ...

Care is expanding and becoming more altruistic. Children pay for taking care of themselves by taking care of their elderly parents - when they can no longer repay the care of children. If care is directed only at oneself, then this is an egoist.

Caring is what brings people together.

The person must be caring. An uncaring or carefree person is most likely a person who is unkind and does not love anyone.

Morality is characterized by a high degree of compassion. In compassion there is a consciousness of oneness with humanity and the world (not only people, peoples, but also with animals, plants, nature, etc.)

№ 20. "Russian classical literature"

And I would first of all note that the creators of Russian classical literature were authors who had enormous “public responsibility”.

The moral and social questions with which Russian classical literature addresses its readers are not temporary, not momentary, although they were of particular importance for their time.

Russian classical literature is eternally alive, it does not become history, only “history of literature”.

The origins of the humanism of Russian literature are in its centuries-old development, when literature sometimes became the only voice of conscience, the only force that determined the national self-consciousness of the Russian people - literature and folklore close to it. It was at the time of feudal fragmentation, at the time of the foreign yoke, when literature, the Russian language were the only forces binding the people.

Without assimilation of the best traditions there can be no progress. It is only necessary that everything most valuable should not be missed, forgotten, simplified in these traditions.

We must not lose anything from our great heritage.

№ 44. "Development"

Every person is obliged (I emphasize - must take care of his intellectual development. It is his duty tosociety in which he lives, and to himself.

The main (but, of course, not the only) way of intellectual development is reading.

Reading should not be random.

Reading, in order to be effective, must interest the reader. Interest in reading in general or in certain branches of culture must be developed in oneself. Interest can be largely the result of self-education.

The danger of reading is the development (conscious or unconscious) in oneself of a tendency to "diagonally" view texts or to different kind speed reading methods.

"Speed reading" creates the appearance of knowledge.

№ 47. "Historical Prejudice"

M We are very often at the mercy of historical prejudices. One of such prejudices is the conviction that ancient, "pre-Petrine" Rus' was a country with a continuouslittle literacy.

Thousands and thousands of handwritten books are stored in our libraries and archives, hundreds birch bark letters found in Novgorod - letters belonging to artisans, peasants, men and women, ordinary people and people of high social status. Printed books show high level typographic art.

More and more new centers of book culture are found in the monasteries of Ancient Russia among forests and swamps, on islands - even far from cities and villages. In the manuscript heritage of Ancient Rus', we are discovering more and more new original works and translations. It has long been clear that the Bulgarian and Serbian manuscript heritage is more widely represented in Russian manuscripts than in their homeland.

Old Russian frescoes and icons, Russian applied arts received universal recognition all over the world. Old Russian architecture turned out to be a whole huge world, amazingly diverse, as if belonging different countries and peoples with different aesthetic culture. From the manuscripts we got an idea about ancient Russian medicine, about Russian historiosophy and philosophy, about the amazing variety of literary genres, about the art of illustration and the art of reading, about various spelling and punctuation systems. And we keep repeating and repeating: "Rus is illiterate, Rus is bastard and silent!"

Why is that? I guess it might be becauseXIXcentury, the bearers of ancient Russian culture remained predominantly peasants, historians judged ancient Rus' mainly on them, on the peasants, and they have long been twisted serfdom, increasing impoverishment, lack of time to read, overwork, poverty.

It was serfdom that brought with it that illiteracy, as the "basting" of the peopleXIXconvict, which even to historians seemed primordial and typical of Ancient Rus'.

One phrase in Stoglav about the illiteracy of the Novgorod priests served and continues to serve this conviction of the illiteracy of the entire population. But after all, the Stoglavy Cathedral, designed to establish a single order of church rules for all of Rus', had in mind only the Novgorod custom of electing street priests by the whole street, as a result of which people who did not have an accurate idea of the church service fell into the priests.

In a word: the most abundant material of excellent handwritten and printed books, stored or heroically collected by our enthusiastic patriots in the North, in the Urals, in Siberia and other places, requires us to recognize the high written culture of the first seven centuries of Russian life.

№ 34. "Kindness"

Kindness cannot be stupid. A good deed is never stupid, because it is selfless and does not pursue the goal of profit.

"Week of open good deeds". This is a topic for reflection and for a short essay. The action takes place at an unknown time. Maybe in the year 2000. The word "kind" is despised, and they say "kind" when they want to offend. There should be only "intransigence". And suddenly a decree: it is possible and even necessary to do good deeds - to do it individually! It is even recommended to do charity work. You can give and ask for alms. It is possible and even recommended to give and receive in debt. You can come to hospitals to help the sick, wash the floors. You can, you can, you can... And now people discover the happiness of kindness. For many, acquisitiveness, the passion for profit, for collecting trifles, dissolves like a fog. People smile at each other after doing a good deed. Someone is moving an elderly person across the street. Not “someone”, but everyone gives up their seats in the metro to the elderly.

Happy faces. Saleswomen are happy to sell, they are happy to carefully wrap purchases.

And they are already asking to extend the week of open goodaffairs. They write letters about it to the top.

The revolution of kindness is zealously picked up by children! They are the most and the first to be infected with good. Kindness becomes their favorite game. They look for the poor, the sick, the elderly, orphans who need help, they find the unfortunate. Organize groups of “pathfinders of goodness”.

There is reconciliation with the world. That's why there are unhappy people: to give happiness to others. The unfortunate become the happy concerns of others, for the unfortunate in one may be happy in another.

You can not do very much in life, but if you do nothing, even small things, against your conscience, then by doing this you bring enormous benefits.

№ 39. "Honor and conscience"

Moral concepts that we really lack in people's assessments: decency and honor. Very rarely, praising a person, they say: "He is a decent person." And even more rarely: "he acted as honor prompted him."

In the meantime, consider how many applications of both concepts: decency in family life, decency of a journalist, decency in love. The honor of a doctor, the honor of a worker, the honor of a school, the honor of a citizen, the honor of a husband or wife. Word, given by man- whoever he may be, must be restrained, otherwise his honor is tarnished.

And one more forgotten moral concept - "courtesy" in behavior.

It is most natural and easiest to maintain independence by observing courtesy. One should be courteous not only to ladies and with ladies, but with everyone and always.

How is honor externally expressed: a person keeps his word, both as an official (employee, statesman, representative of an institution), and as a simple person; a person behaves decently, does not violate ethical norms, respects dignity - does not grovel before the authorities, before any "good giver", does not adapt to someone else's opinion for the benefit, does not stubbornly prove his case, does not settle personal scores, does not "pay off" with the "necessary people" at the expense of the state (various indulgences, "devices", etc.).

Lack of morality brings chaos to social life.

There is one essential difference between conscience and honor. Conscience - always comes from the depths of the soul and is cleansed by conscience to one degree or another. Conscience "gnaws". Conscience is not false.

True honor is always in accordance with conscience. False honor is a mirage in the desert, in the moral desert of the human (or rather bureaucratic) soul.

Martynov, who killed Lermontov in a duel, that is why he bequeathed not to write his name on the grave and not to erect any monument to himself. What is the difference with Dantes, who until the end of his long and prosperous life was convinced that he had "no other way out" (although the way out was quite simple - to sacrifice his external honor for the sake of internal).

№ 41. Gentlemen's Humor

I never cease to be amazed at the reconciler,healingennoblingpropertyof the human mind - to laughter, which no most perfect computer can ever possess, even if it calculates where, at what moment and on what occasion one should laugh.

In April 1826, a duel was to take place between US Secretary of State (that is, Foreign Secretary) Henry Clay and Senator John Randolph. I will not talk about the reasons for the duel, to convey those "fightingwords" (insulting words obliging the opponent to a duel), which were uttered by Randolph (by the way, the insult, very cruel and public, was no longer without an element of humor; Randolph used the text from Fielding's "Tom Jones").

The duel was supposed to take place according to very cruel American rules - from ten steps. In the first exchange of shots, both, however, missed. "It's child's play," Clay declared, "I demand a second shot." His second shot only pierced Randolph's clothes. Then, in response, Randolph fired into the air and announced: “You owe me the cost of my clothes!” - "I'm glad it's not more," Clay replied, and the opponents reconciled. Randolph's wit and Clay's good response saved both from the third round of the duel.

№ 33. "Idleness"

Idleness is not at allthat a person sits idle, "hands folded" in the literal sense. No, the idler is always busy: he talks on the phone (sometimes for hours), goes to visit, sits at the TV and watches everything, sleeps for a long time, thinks up different things for himself. In general, a slacker is always very busy ...

№ 55. "Selflessness"

A television operator who lived for several months in Antarctica told. When frosts and winds become especially strong, the penguins stand in a circle. In the middle, the smallest, then more, then adults, and outside - in a circle, at the very south - old men, leaders. And they die to save the race.

№ 40. "Trains"

Sergei Sergeevich Averintsev told me how in the summer he rented a dacha next to the railway. Trains disturbed his sleep. Finally, he decided: not trains are passing by, but people are passing by with their worries and thoughts. And the noise of the trains ceased to irritate him. He began to sleep.

It is necessary to develop a benevolent, "understanding" attitude towards the environment, and then it will become easier to live.

Evil people live shorter lives than good people.

Popular in category: