Information about the culture of the 19th century. Russian culture of the 19th century

1. The sphere of education.

The growth of national self-consciousness, which was a direct consequence of the victory in the war of 1812, largely determined the progress and achievements of national culture and science.

In the sphere of education, the process of forming a unified system of public education continued. Its main links are: parochial schools and two-class county schools (for representatives of all classes) - the initial stage; gymnasiums (with the exception of serfs) - the middle level; universities and technical schools are the highest level. Universities operated in St. Petersburg, Moscow, Derpt, Vilna, Kazan, Kyiv, Kharkov. The university charter of 1804 secured the autonomy of the universities by allowing the Council of Professors to elect the rector and deans.

In the 50s. pedagogical institutes and special boarding houses were opened at universities, which prepared for admission to higher educational institutions. Higher education was also provided by special educational institutions: cadet corps, military academies, institutes of Mining, Technological, Railway Engineers, Moscow Commercial School. Officials for public institutions prepared in Lyceums (St. Petersburg, Odessa, Yaroslavl) - privileged educational institutions with a program of higher and secondary schools. The development and improvement of the education system was a direct consequence of the economic development of the country and the increase in the number of administrative apparatus.

Significant advances have been made in science. University science developed especially intensively and effectively. Universities are getting big scientific centers. The works of N.I. Lobachevsky (Kazan University) - the creator of non-Euclidean geometry, P.L. Chebysheva (Petersburg University) proved the law of large numbers; M.V. Ostrogradsky and V.Ya. Bunyakovsky (Academy of Sciences) studied the problems of mathematical statistics and probability theory. Outstanding discoveries were made in the field of organic chemistry by N.N. Zinin and A.M. Butlerov (Kazan University). Successes in the study of electricity and magnetism are associated with the names of V.V. Petrov, E.Kh. Lenz and B.S. Jacobi (Academy of Sciences). In medicine, the works of N.I. Pirogov, who laid the foundation for the anatomical and experimental direction in surgery and domestic military field surgery.

The most important milestone in the development of Russian historical science was the 12-volume History of the Russian State by N.M. Karamzin. The design of the nobility trend in historiography is associated with the names of historians N.G. Ustryalova and M.N. Pogodin. During this period, the works on world history of the professor of Moscow University T.N. Granovsky.

Reforms of the 60-70s, economic development, formation of new public relations, liberal and revolutionary movement - all this greatly contributed to the development of culture, determined its priorities.

Economic growth, activation of public and political life in the country lead to further development and improvement of the education system. Literacy rate by the end of the 19th century. towards the beginning of the 1960s. increased by 15% and amounted to 21%. Parish and zemstvo schools provided elementary education with a 3-4 year training cycle. The former were funded by the state, the latter by the zemstvos. Sunday schools for adults operated in the cities. The basis of secondary education was still made up of gymnasiums, real and commercial schools. However, the right to enter the university was given only in the gymnasium. There were about 100 higher education institutions in the country educational institutions- universities and institutes. In 1878, the Higher Women's Courses (Bestuzhevsky - named after the professor of Russian history K.N. Bestuzhev-Ryumin) were opened, which laid the foundation for higher education for women.

Russian science and technology in the post-reform period was represented by a whole galaxy of outstanding scientists. P.L. Chebyshev continued his work in the field of mathematics, A.M. Lyapunov, activities of S.V. Kovalevskaya. In chemical science A.M. Butlerov proposed the theory of the chemical structure of substances, D.I. Mendeleev discovered the periodic law of chemical elements.

Large scientific discoveries were made in physics. A.G. Stoletov investigated and described photoelectric phenomena. P.N. Yablochkov created an arc lamp and for the first time carried out the transformation of alternating current. A.N. Lodygin designed an incandescent lamp. The main direction of scientific activity of A.S. Popov was the study of electrical phenomena, its result was the invention of the radiotelegraph. The works of N.I. Zhukovsky, the founder of modern hydro- and aeromechanics. The first experiments on the design of aircraft (aircraft) were made by A.F. Mozhaisky.

New generalizing works on Russian history appear, which have become a phenomenon not only in historical science, but also cultural life Russia: 29-volume "History of Russia from ancient times" by S.M. Solovyov and the “Course of Russian History” by his student V.O. Klyuchevsky. Such bright representatives of Russian historical science as P.N. Milyukov, S.F. Platonov, N.P. Pavlov-Silvansky, V.I. Semevsky, M.N. Pokrovsky. A notable event in scientific life was the work of M.M. Kovalevsky on world history.

In the first half of the 19th century numerous round-the-world trips are undertaken. The first round-the-world trip in the history of Russia was made under the command of I.F. Kruzenshtern and F.Yu. Lisyansky in 1803-1806. New islands were discovered in the Pacific and Arctic Oceans, valuable ethnographic information about the life of the indigenous population of Sakhalin and Kamchatka was obtained and recorded. In 1812, also during a round-the-world trip made under the command of F.F. Bellingshausen and M.I. Lazarev, one sixth of the world was discovered - Antarctica. Russian geographers and travelers made a significant contribution to the study of the Asian continent. Expeditions of F.P. Wrangel, F.F. Matyushin made a description of the northeastern coast of Asia, P.K. Pakhtusova, F.P. Litke - the islands of the Arctic Ocean, A.F. Middendorf - surveyed the territory in the basin of the Yenisei and Yakutia.

In the second half of the XIX century. Russian geographers and travelers continue to explore the little-studied territories of our planet. Admiral F.P. Litke carried out a survey of Kamchatka, Chukotka and some islands in the northern part of the Pacific Ocean. N.M. Przhevalsky, P.K. Kozlov, P.P. Semenov-Tienshansky during his travels studied the regions of Central and Central Asia. N.N. Miklukho-Maclay - the coast of New Guinea and the Pacific Islands.

The trends in the development of Russian art were largely determined by the complex, but rather intensive process of changing some styles and trends by others: sentimentalism - romanticism, romanticism - realism. Literature becomes the dominant area of ​​art and spiritual life. Sentimentalism in Russian literature takes hold at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries. Its founder and most prominent representative became N.M. Karamzin. Formation and development of romanticism in the second decade of the 19th century. associated with the work of V.A. Zhukovsky. Translations of Zhukovsky opened to the domestic reader the best works Western European romantic poetry. This trend should include the Decembrist poets K.F. Ryleeva, V.K. Kuchelbeker, A.I. Odoevsky. The ideas of romanticism permeate and early works M.Yu. Lermontov, A.S. Pushkin, F.I. Tyutchev. From the 30s. realism begins to assert itself in Russian literature.

At its origins were A.S. Pushkin, N.V. Gogol, M.Yu. Lermontov, V.G. Belinsky. A.S. Pushkin is not only the founder of Russian realism, but together with N.M. Karamzin, he has significant merits in the formation and development of modern literary language. Russian literature was entering its "golden age".

Second half of the 19th century - the most important stage in the development domestic literature. Creativity L.N. Tolstoy, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.P. Chekhov, I.S. Turgenev had a huge impact not only on Russian literature, which affirms critical realism, but also on the world. In the 70-80s. the outstanding satirist writer M.E. creates his main works. Saltykov-Shchedrin. The best examples of Russian lyric poetry are the poems of A.A. Feta.

Fine art was represented by two main trends - classicism and romanticism. The traditions of classicism were developed in their works by F.A. Bruni, F.I. Tolstoy. The subjects for their paintings were mainly biblical and mythological themes. The influence of romanticism was especially evident in portrait and landscape painting. Features of romanticism are inherent in the portrait works of O.A. Kiprensky and landscapes of Italian nature by S.F. Shchedrin. Genre plots, idealistic depiction ordinary people, and first of all serfs, was characteristic of the work of A.G. Venetsianov and V.A. Tropinin. Romantic interpretation of images in combination with elements and traditions of academic painting distinguished the works outstanding artist first half of the 19th century K.P. Bryulova. For more than 20 years he worked on the creation of his monumental canvas "The Appearance of Christ to the People" by A.A. Ivanov. Numerous sketches and landscapes for the painting influenced the formation of realistic art. The ideas of realism are being developed in genre painting student Bryullov P.A. Fedotov.

In painting, as in literature, the realistic direction becomes dominant. In 1870, the "Association of Traveling Exhibitions" appeared, uniting the majority of realist artists (I.N. Kramskoy, V.G. Petrov, A.K. Savrasov, N.N. Ge, I.E. Repin, V.I. Surikov and others). In the work of the "Wanderers" the panorama of modern life was widely represented, a deep poetic world Russian nature, heroic episodes national history. The talent and brush of Repin, Kramskoy, Serov gave special features to portraiture: deep psychologism, the subtlest reflection of the state of mind and the spiritual world of a person. The exhibitions of the "Wanderers" were of great social importance.

First half of the 19th century characterized by the development of the art of sculpture, and primarily monumental. This process was directly related to the strengthening of the Russian state, the growth of national self-consciousness caused by the victory in the war of 1812. The heroic pages of Russian history were embodied in the monuments to Minin and Pozharsky in Moscow, built according to the project of I.P. Martos, Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly in St. Petersburg near the Kazan Cathedral, designed by B.I. Orlovsky. P.K. brought worldwide fame. Klodt the sculptural group "Taming the Horse" on the Anichkov Bridge in St. Petersburg.

Russian architects of the first half of the 19th century. made an outstanding contribution to the treasury of domestic architecture. New content and development received the basic principles of classicism. The style that developed under the influence of the patriotic upsurge caused by the victory in the war of 1812 was called Russian classicism or Russian Empire style. However, in the 30-50s. in Russian architecture, the features of a new architectural direction begin to take shape. Russian classicism is being replaced by "historicism" or "eclecticism". Fine examples of classicism in Russian architecture were the creations of A.N. Voronikhina (Kazan Cathedral, Mining Institute), A.D. Zakharov (Admiralty), architectural ensembles of K.I. Rossi (Alexandrinsky Theater with Architect Rossi Street, the building of the main headquarters with a double arch, the Senate and the Synod) - in St. Petersburg, O.I. Beauvais (Manege and the Bolshoi Theater) - in Moscow. One of the varieties of "eclecticism" was the "Russian-Byzantine" architectural style. His representative K.A. Tone, according to the projects of which the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, the Grand Kremlin Palace - in Moscow, the buildings of railway stations in Moscow and St. Petersburg were built.

In terms of his aesthetic views, the outstanding Russian sculptor M.M. Antokolsky. He is the author of sculptural portraits of "Ermak", "Nestor the Chronicler", "Ivan the Terrible".

According to the project of M.O. Mikeshin in Novgorod erected a monument to the Millennium of Russia. Its numerous sculptural groups reflect the most important stages Russian history. Mikeshin is also the author of monuments to Catherine II in St. Petersburg and Bogdan Khmelnitsky in Kyiv. Monuments erected according to the designs of A.M. Opekushin (Pushkin in Moscow and Lermontov in Pyatigorsk).

The level and condition of architecture was largely determined by industrial progress and the development of building technology.

Buildings new to domestic architecture appear: tenement houses, railway stations, banks, large covered retail premises. Eclecticism dominated a number of architectural styles.

A variety of eclecticism was the pseudo-Russian style, which replaced the Russian-Byzantine style. It absorbed elements of ancient Russian architecture, folk decorative arts(carving, embroidery), peasant wooden architecture. Buildings in Moscow became examples of this style. Historical Museum(architects A.A. Semyonov and V.O. Sherwood), the City Duma (architect D.N. Chichagov), the current Gunma (architect A.N. Pomerantsev).

With the name of M.I. Glinka is connected with the formation and development of Russian classical music and national music school. The basis of the works of M.I. Glinka was Russian folk music. M.I. Glinka is the author of the first Russian operas A Life for the Tsar and Ruslan and Lyudmila, symphonic works, and many romances. Traditions and musical aesthetics Glinka continued and developed D.S. Dargomyzhsky (opera "Mermaid"). Folk motifs also permeate the songs and romances of A.N. Verstovsky, A.A. Alyabyeva, A.L. Varlamov, which enjoyed wide popularity in various sectors of society.

For the widest strata of Russian society, one of the most accessible forms of art was theater. The basis of the repertoire of both metropolitan and provincial theaters were plays by A.N. Ostrovsky, A.P. Chekhov, N.V. Gogol. Realistic traditions in acting, established by M.S. Shchepkin, successfully continued and developed by outstanding Russian actors M.P. and O.O. Sadovskie, G.N. Fedotova, M.N. Ermolova, P.A. Strepetova. The Maly Theater in Moscow was rightfully considered the center of the theatrical life in Russia.

Thus, having examined how culture developed in Russia in the 19th century, we see that during this period a lot of important discoveries were made in the field of science, many schools and gymnasiums were opened, and the art of the 19th century. characterized by their own styles. All these discoveries and changes could have a beneficial effect on the cultural state of society.

1. Vernadsky G.V. Russian history. M., 1997.

2. Dvornichenko A.Yu., Ilyin E.V., Krivosheev Yu.V., Tot Yu.V. Russian history from ancient times to the present day: textbook, St. Petersburg, Publishing house "Lan", 2001.

3. Kornilov A.A. History course Russia XIX century. M., 1993.

4. Shulgin V.S., Koshman L.V., Zezina M.R. Culture of Russia IX - XX centuries: textbook, M., 1996.

The beginning of the 19th century in Russia was marked by a cultural upsurge, called the "golden age". Russian was famous all over the world and was ahead of others in many ways. European countries. Classicism was affirmed in art, which was reflected in architecture, literature, and music.

Under Emperor Alexander I, a policy of "enlightened absolutism" was pursued, aimed at developing education, supporting industry, and patronizing the sciences and arts.

Ascended to the throne in 1825, Nicholas I carried out which relied on the police and the bureaucracy.

Early 19th century architecture

Great influence on different areas art and social life had a victory in the Patriotic War of 1812. Therefore, Russian culture of the first half of the 19th century is distinguished by patriotic sentiments. The reflection of those glorious events can be traced in architecture. A talented architect, a native of Andrei Nikiforovich Voronikhin, became the creator of the Kazan Cathedral. It was conceived by Paul I as a semblance of St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome. Voronikhin was able to successfully fit the building into the ensemble of St. Petersburg's central Nevsky Prospekt. The Kazan Cathedral, which became the memorial of the year, became the burial place of Field Marshal M. I. Kutuzov. The decoration of the iconostasis took forty pounds of silver, which was stolen by the French and returned by the Cossacks. The standards and banners of the French troops were kept here.

Painting

In painting, the art of portraiture developed. O. A. Kiprensky is recognized as one of the most significant Russian portrait painters of this era. Russian culture of the 19th century developed during the period of political upheavals that reigned in Europe, where Napoleon's aggressive wars were going on. The famous portrait of a hussar colonel by Kiprensky belongs to this period. In female portraits, Kiprensky conveyed the warmth and lyricism of the images. The artist sought on his canvases to show people who reflected the historical era.

19th century occupies a special place in the history of Russian culture. Russia has contributed wonderful works of literature, painting, and music to the world cultural fund. The rise of Russian culture was so great that it allows us to call this era the golden age of Russian culture.

The performance of the Decembrists in 1825 led to the emergence of the spirit of revolutionary changes. Literature took first place in terms of the degree of influence on Russian society, reflecting various aspects of public life, contributed to the development public consciousness. Huge impact on public life provided magazines reflecting the literary trends of various styles. The sentimentalism of N. Karamzin and V. Zhukovsky replaced the classicism of G. Derzhavin and advocated the convergence of the literary language with the spoken language. After the war of 1812, romanticism came, responding to the mood in society and finding its expression in the ballad. The poem was the second form romantic literature. In it, reality appeared in a forked form (“Demon” by M. Lermontov). The lyrics of Pushkin, Baratynsky, Lermontov, Tyutchev became the highest achievement of Russian romanticism in literature. After the war of 1812 ideas of patriotism, service to the motherland, a sense of national identity were formed in society, which were reflected in the art of the first half of XIX V. Gained particular popularity historical genre, landscape painting has become much more emotional, acquired a lively color: sunny, full of living warmth, the work of S. Shchedrin, seascapes by I. Aivazovsky, small penetrating landscapes, in which virgin Russian nature is glorified, I. Shishkin. In the second half of the XIX century. realism is manifested in painting, whose representatives tried to overcome the canons of academic classicism, which led to the emergence of a new direction - the "rebellion of thirteen". Sculpture still remained true to classicism, remaining associated with architectural creativity, gradually giving preference to realistic trends: P. Klodt (sculpture of equestrian groups on the Anichkov Bridge). Late classicism, which prevailed in architecture, gradually gave its rights to eclecticism. The era of urban development has begun. Based on the monuments of ancient Russian architecture, the building of the Historical Museum in Moscow (O. Sherwood), the Church of the Resurrection "on Blood" in St. Petersburg (A. Parland) were built. By the end of the XIX century. Art Nouveau began to appear.

cultural process turn XIX-XX centuries called "decadence". The Italian writer F. Marineti founded Futurism in 1909, later a new expressionist society, the Blue Rider, Dadaism, Audism, and Cubism arose. Styles and methods in the culture of the 20th century .. move away from classical techniques artistic creativity, their diversity is called modernism, which united various creative understanding of the features of the time of decadence. Realism, existing in parallel with modernism, manifested itself in different ways, but most clearly as neorealism, especially in cinema (L. Visconti, M. Antonioni, R. Rossellini, St. Kramer, A. Kurosawa, A. Vaida). The names of A. Rimbaud, P. Verlaine, O. Wilde are associated with the symbolism that represented the decadent literature of the turn of the century. One of the leading literary movements of the mid-twentieth century. is existentialism. How literary direction it originated in France (J. P. Sartre, A. Camus) and asserted a “pure” unmotivated action, individualism, reflected the loneliness of a person in an absurd world hostile to him. As a challenge to society, as consistent destruction real image, which reflects the world by familiar means, the so-called abstractionism arose - an extreme form of modernism. At its origins are V. Kandinsky, K. Malevich, P. Klee and others. To replace him in the 60s. came avant-garde, pop art and postmodernism.

The development of the economy and culture took place in Russia throughout the 19th century. in the conditions of preservation of autocracy (unlimited monarchy). The Emperor had full legislative and executive power. At the beginning of the century, the State Council and ministries were created. The government of Emperor Alexander I (1801-1825) carried out some liberal reforms before the Patriotic War of 1812. Among them are measures to develop the education system. It was last period policy of "enlightened absolutism". Its essence is in an attempt to adapt the autocratic-feudal system to the requirements of modern times. The ideology of "enlightened absolutism" emphasized the "enlightenment of minds" and "improvement of morals", the softening of laws and religious tolerance. However, the limits of the reforms were narrow. The development of the education system, the encouragement of industry, "the patronage of the sciences and the arts" - but all this is under the strict supervision of the bureaucracy and the police.

In 1811-1815. there was a turn towards reaction and mysticism. Militarism and protective tendencies came to the fore. The all-powerful temporary worker Arakcheev became their bearer. There are military settlements designed to strengthen the military power of the empire without much cost. Russia enters into the "Holy Alliance" - a kind of "international" of monarchs helping each other in the fight against the revolutionary movement. This policy aroused dissatisfaction with the advanced part of the nobility, which created underground revolutionary organizations. The noble revolutionaries dreamed of turning Russia into either constitutional monarchy, or to the republic, cancel serfdom. The movement ended in an unsuccessful uprising on December 14, 1825. The Decembrists were defeated and Nicholas I (1825-1855) took the throne.

The policy of the new emperor, who did not trust the nobles and relied on the bureaucracy and the police, was reactionary. He crushed the Polish uprising of 1830-1831. and helped crush the revolution in Hungary (intervention of 1849). Separate reforms (financial, publication of the Code of Laws, improved management of state peasants) were combined with the merciless suppression of the opposition. Militarism, bribery, red tape in the courts, lack of rights and arbitrariness - these are the features of the "Nikolaev system" that led the country to military defeat.

With the accession to the throne of Alexander II (1855-1881), the so-called. "thaw". The urgent reforms were discussed in society, the Decembrists were amnestied, the rights of the press were expanded. In 1861, serfdom was abolished, and new reforms soon followed - the abolition of corporal punishment, the introduction of a jury, the establishment of elected local self-government (zemstvos). However, the “crowning of the building” of reforms, as the liberals called the introduction of a constitution and parliament in Russia, did not follow. From 1866 (an unsuccessful assassination attempt on the emperor) the government turned to reaction.

Meanwhile, among the educated youth of different classes (the so-called raznochintsy), the ideas of populism (N.G. Chernyshevsky’s socialism and others) were becoming more widespread. Discontent grew and underground organizations sprang up. In 1874, the so-called. "going to the people" - an agitational movement. It failed. The people did not follow the socialists, but the police caught them. In response, the revolutionaries embarked on the path of terror. The end of this path was the assassination of Alexander II on March 1, 1881.

The experience of the Patriotic War for the first time significantly brought the elite class closer to the common people, making for a time the social gap between them less significant than national priorities. V.G. Belinsky wrote about 1812 as about the era from which “a new life began for Russia”, seeing the meaning of these changes not only in “outward grandeur and brilliance”, but above all in internal development in a "citizenship and education" society. The idea of ​​responsibility of the nobility to its people, new for Russia, which strengthened the influence of the socio-political European thought of the Enlightenment, created another cultural phenomenon 19th century - the movement of the Decembrists. Decembrism in Russia demonstrated to society a completely new type of Russian man, capable of challenging the arbitrariness of despotic power, and became for several generations a criterion of noble honor, a moral ground for future social transformations.

It was the nobility that played the main role in the development of Russian culture in the first half of the 19th century, since it was mainly the nobles who had favorable material and social conditions for education and artistic creativity in this period. Nevertheless, advanced Russian culture, represented mainly by nobles, objectively opposed class inequality, serfdom, autocratic and bureaucratic lawlessness. It is paradoxical that the gigantic leap in cultural development made by Russia in the 19th century occurred against the backdrop of a “belated” and largely inconsistent economic and political modernization.

The rise of Russian culture in the 19th century was caused by a number of circumstances:

○ Russian society was going through a period of radical transformation, the formation of national identity and the gradual democratization of public life. These changes manifested themselves most intensively in the second half of the 19th century, during the post-reform period, which set its own tasks for the country.

○ Increasing specialization various areas cultural activities, especially in science, where new directions of research appear, and at the same time, a close mutual influence of philosophy is established, and at the same time, a close mutual influence of philosophy and literature, literature and other forms of art is established.

○ The modernization of the economy requires an increasing number of competent, qualified specialists, a network of specialized educational institutions is developing, and the base of bourgeois democratic culture is expanding.

○ But the burden of traditional relations also remains strong, bourgeois society in Russia in the 19th century has not yet taken shape. The great Russian culture fully reflected all the contradictions and painful conflicts of its time, most clearly manifested in the creative activity of the Russian intelligentsia.



Russian culture of the 19th century

Subject: Culturology

Plan

Introduction

1. Science and education in Russia in the 19th century

1.1 Development of education in Russia

1.2 Development of Russian science

2. Art of Russia of the 19th century

2.1 Visual arts and architecture

2.2 Musical culture of Russia

2.3 Russian theater

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

first year of the new 19th century was marked for Russia by a number of events that dramatically changed the direction of its domestic and foreign policy. The young monarch Alexander I ascended the throne of Russia. To strengthen his position, he was forced to look for new social forces that he could oppose both the figures of Paul's time and the high-ranking opposition of Catherine's nobles.

The "young friends" of the emperor, the younger generation of the richest and most distinguished noble families, were involved in the preparation of a number of liberal reforms. In 1801, they formed an informal meeting, the so-called Secret Committee, which was supposed to study the state of the state and develop a series of reforms on the most important issues of economic, social and cultural life.

1. Science and education in Russia XIX century

1.1 Development of education in Russia

Along with the peasant question and the reorganization of the state apparatus, the Private Committee paid much attention to public education.

In August 1802, the ministry of public education, the primary task of which was the preparation and implementation of a complete reorganization of all parts of the educational process in Russia. In 1804, two statutes were issued - the “Charter of the Universities of the Russian Empire” and the “Charter of Educational Institutions Subordinate to Universities”.

A harmonious and consistent system of administrative management of all educational institutions was created. Public education in Russia was divided into four stages: 1) parish schools, 2) county schools, 3) gymnasiums, 4) universities. All of these levels were academically and administratively interconnected.

According to the statute, parochial schools became the initial link of the school, which were intended to give children of the "lower strata" religious education and skills in reading, writing and counting within one year, preparing them for admission to the district school.

County schools with a two-year training period were created in district and provincial cities and were intended for the children of artisans, small merchants, wealthy peasants. The curriculum of the county schools was designed to prepare students for entering the gymnasium.

Gymnasiums were to be opened in provincial towns. The course of study in them was four years. The purpose of the training was to prepare the children of the nobility for public service or going to university.

Finally, universities completed the education system. According to the Charter of the Universities of the Russian Empire, their management, development curricula etc. was carried out by elected academic councils headed by the rector, professors and deans of faculties were also elected by the academic council. The rector of the university was chosen with subsequent approval.

The reform of educational institutions in 1804, of course, was distinguished by a number of progressive features, reflecting the influence of the ideas of Russian enlighteners of the 18th century and the progressive public of the early 19th century. A significant step forward in the field of education was the establishment of the continuity of the various levels of lower, secondary and higher education, the expansion of curricula, the establishment of a more humane and progressive teaching methodology, and, most importantly, the free education.

All this created the appearance of a bourgeois reform of the school, the availability of education for all classes of the Russian Empire. However, this appearance was deceptive, and the bourgeois character of the events being carried out was significantly limited by the preserved feudal features.

Under Nicholas I official education policy was aimed at raising the educated people needed by the country, while avoiding the spread of "revolutionary contagion". S. S. Uvarov, who became Minister of Public Education in 1833, proposed introducing a “truly Russian” education, which would be based on three inseparable principles: Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality. Having arisen as a principle of domestic education, the theory of "official nationality" by S. S. Uvarov became the cornerstone of the state ideology of the Nikolaev era.

Nicholas I founded the Teachers' Institute and the Main Pedagogical Institute. Its purpose was primarily to protecting Russian youth from the influence of foreign teachers. It was forbidden to send young people to study abroad, except in exceptional cases in which special permission was requested. In educational institutions established by the government, preference was given to the Russian language, literature, statistics and national history. They especially took care of military educational institutions, corps, military academies.

Under the influence of the social movement of the 60s of the XIX century, school reforms to centralize school management; the transformation of the estate school into a bourgeois school began.

According to the Charter of 1864, it was approved two types of high school: a classical gymnasium with a 7-year term of study, preparing for admission to universities, and real gymnasiums with a 6-year term of study, giving the right to enter higher technical educational institutions.

Notable development received female education(women's gymnasiums, women's colleges).

Women's gymnasiums were founded in 1858 under the auspices of the reigning empress. There were 26 of them. The Ministry of Public Education, in turn, opened in 1871, following the same model, 56 gymnasiums and 130 pro-gymnasiums with 23,404 pupils. “Nowhere in Europe was the education of girls so widely developed, nowhere do they have such easy access to free careers and positions determined by the government, for example, at the telegraph, post offices, etc.”

The Higher Women's Courses with a university program were organized in Moscow (Prof. V. I. Gerrier), in St. Petersburg (Prof. K. N. Bestuzhev-Ryumin - went down in history as Bestuzhev Courses), Kazan, Kiev.

In the 1960s and 1970s, the first zemstvo and government teachers' seminaries. Since 1872 established real and Sunday schools; spread parochial schools .

As a result of reforms, if at the beginning of the XIX century. in Russia there were only thirty-two gymnasiums, then by the middle of the century there were about a hundred of them, by the end of the century - one and a half hundred (more precisely, 165), and in 1915 there were about two thousand secondary educational institutions in Russia (more precisely, 1798)4.

And yet, despite such a seemingly rapid growth in the number of educational institutions, four out of five inhabitants of the country remained illiterate. Regarding initial training, Russia was inferior to any of the European powers.

1.2 Development of Russian science

“The development of productive forces, especially the beginning of the transition of manufactory to the factory, the formation of the capitalist structure in the economy had a beneficial effect on the scientific life of the country, activated Russian scientific and technical thought, contributed to the beginning of the convergence of science and production.”

centers of scientific thought became the Academy of Sciences, universities and scientific societies (Society of Russian History and Antiquities, Archaeographic Commission, Society of Naturalists, Russian Geographical Society, etc.).

Russian scientists in the first half of the XIX century. made some remarkable discoveries. The great mathematician Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky (1792–1856), who became a professor at the age of 23, created the doctrine of "non-Euclidean geometry". He proved that mathematical laws are not categories of human consciousness, but a reflection of real relationships that exist in nature.

The scientist P.F. Goryaninov concluded that all plants and animals, having a single structural principle, consist of cells. He became one of the founders "cell theory".

Chemistry professor N. N. Zinin was the first to obtain aniline, a coloring matter from coal tar. He initiated the creation synthetic materials. Metallurgist P.P. Anosov revealed the secret of ancient damask steel, created superhard steel, founded a new science - metallography. Physicist V.V. Petrov proved the possibility of using electricity for lighting and for melting 154 metals, he, in fact, was the founder electrochemistry and electrometallurgy.

Academician B.S. Yakobi worked on the conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy, designed an electric motor, discovered the method of electroplating, and substantiated the possibility of a telegraph. The inventions and discoveries of L. Schilling (electromagnetic telegraph), P. P. Anosov, P. M. Obukhov, V. S. Pyatov (metallurgy) corresponded to the level of development of world science.

The world-famous astronomer V. Ya. Struve created near St. Petersburg Pulkovo observatory, which began to be called "the astronomical capital of the world." The famous surgeon N. I. Pirogov, a participant in the defense of Sevastopol, proposed the use antiseptics, painkillers and ether anesthesia during operations. His method saved the lives of thousands of wounded.

Russian sailors scientists F. F. Bellingshausen, G. I. Nevelskoy, M. P. Lazarev, V. M. Golovnin made several trips around the world, discovered Antarctica, many islands in the Pacific Ocean, made a great contribution to the development geographical science. courtier historiographer N. M. Karamzin wrote the History of the Russian State.

In the second half of the XIX century. the brilliant Russian scientist D. I. Mendeleev (1834 - 1907) lived and worked. Mendeleev discovered periodic law of chemical elements(1869), predicted the properties and atomic weights of many unknown elements. The book of the scientist "Fundamentals of Chemistry" was translated into all European languages.

Another Russian chemist A. M. Butlerov (1828–1886) created a theory of the chemical structure of matter. She became the basis the doctrine of organic compounds.

Russian scientists have made a great contribution to the development evolutionary theory of Ch. Darwin, reinforced it with new experiments and special studies. The great researcher of plant life K. A. Timiryazev (1843-1920) was an ardent supporter and propagandist of Darwinism. He made the most valuable discoveries in the field of plant photosynthesis, laid the foundation for the Russian school of plant physiology, and laid the scientific foundations of agronomy. The physiologist I. M. Sechenov (1829–1905) studied the physiology of the human brain. His work "Reflexes of the Brain" made a real revolution in the view of scientists about the mental activity of a person. Biologist II Mechnikov (1845–1916) created evolutionary embryology and made a number of discoveries in the field of microbiology.

The Russians are making great strides mathematics. P. L. Chebyshev (1821–1894) made important discoveries in the theory of machines and mechanisms. He introduced new concepts into mathematical science and was the founder of the St. Petersburg mathematical school, from which came a whole galaxy of brilliant scientists, including A. M. Lyapunov, A. A. Markov, V. A. Steklov.

Sophia Vasilievna Kovalevskaya (1850–1891) was the most prominent scientist. To study mathematics, she was forced to leave for Germany, since in Russia women were not accepted to the university. The first of the Russian women, having received a doctorate in mathematics and the title of professor abroad, Kovalevskaya returned to her homeland. But in Russia, she could not achieve a professorship. She again went abroad and became a professor at Stockholm University.

Russian inventor, naval officer Alexander Fedorovich Mozhaisky (1825-1890) worked on the creation of an aircraft heavier than air. In 1883 he designed world's first aircraft. His ideas formed the basis of aircraft construction. A. S. Popov (1859–1905) invented radio communication. In May 1895, he made a public presentation during which he demonstrated the operation of the world's first radio receiver.

Among physicists, the name of A. G. Stoletov (1839–1896), the author of works on the theory of electricity and magnetism, stands out. He owns the discovery the first law of the photoelectric effect.

Discoveries in the field of technology brought world fame to Russian scientists. This is the invention of P. N. Yablochkov (1847 - 1894) - an arc lamp and a lighting system developed by him. A. N. Lodygin (1847–1923) invented an electric incandescent lamp, using tungsten for the first time.

The whole world is known outstanding Russian travelers. P.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky (1827–1914) made a number of trips to the Tien Shan mountains, to Central Asia. As head of the Imperial Geographical Society, he organized a number of major expeditions to Central Asia under the leadership of M. M. Przhevalsky (1839–1888), who made five trips to these parts. His works introduced Europeans to Mongolia, China and Tibet. N. N. Miklukho-Maclay (1846–1888), also with the help of Semenov-Tyan-Shansky, traveled around the Canary Islands, Morocco, along the coast of the Red Sea, and the islands of the Pacific Ocean. For fifteen months he lived among the Papuans of New Guinea.

Our the largest naturalist IN AND. Vernadsky, in terms of the structure of thoughts and the breadth of coverage of natural phenomena, is on a par with European luminaries of scientific thought,

All this eloquently indicates that the work of Russian scientists of the second half of the 19th century. took significant place in world science.

2. Art of Russia XIX century

2.1 Visual arts and architecture

In Russian fine arts first half of the 19th century compared to the 18th century. develops a new, more democratic view of value human personality, and in particular a man from the people.

In the field of painting during these years, those pictorial forms and genres are developing that bring the viewer closer to a person, to his inner, spiritual world, to his private life. Most clearly, these tendencies are manifested in a portrait that conveys the character of a person. The form of the formal portrait, typical of the previous century, is gradually degrading.

In the landscape, lyrical elements are intensified, linking nature with human life; the everyday genre is born as an independent type of painting.

“The desire for a direct reflection of reality was also expressed in the appeal of a number of artists to the systematic study of nature in a much broader sense of the word than it was before.”

At the same time, the transitional nature of the era was reflected in the attraction to the historical picture, which, however, most often creates a romantically abstract image of the people at the fatal, turning points of life. This trend is especially noticeable at the end of the period under review.

Orest Kiprensky (1782-1836) and Karl Bryullov (1799-1852) are the greatest masters of Russian art in the first half of the 19th century. Bryullov was the first of the Russian artists who won fame abroad. His painting The Last Day of Pompeii (1834) was shown throughout Europe.

Alexey Venetsianov (1780-1847), a student of Borovikovsky, is the author of idyllic scenes from peasant life and one of the founders of the everyday genre in Russian art. Vasily Tropinin (1776-1857) can be called a master of sentimental portraiture, while Pavel Fedotov (1815-1852) represents the everyday genre in its urban, more dramatic version. Alexander Ivanov (1806-1858) created the painting "The Appearance of Christ to the People" (1837-1857), which is one of the key monuments of the Russian Art XIX V.

period since the late 1990s. 19th century until 1825-1830 was associated with the rise Russian architecture. At the heart of this heyday was that huge national-patriotic upsurge, which was caused by the fight against Napoleon in the Patriotic War of 1812 (the work of architects A. N. Voronikhin - the Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg; A. D. Zakharova - the building of the Admiralty, K I. Rossi - Ensemble Palace Square, buildings of the Senate and Synod, Teatralnaya street in St. Petersburg), Over time, especially with the onset of heavy and for long years reign of Nicholas I, Russian architecture is undergoing significant changes. The bright, joyfully jubilant pathos of the victorious end of the Patriotic War of 1812, which is so expressively and unobtrusively embodied in the numerous, sometimes very diverse buildings of the first third of the 19th century, is increasingly being replaced by lush and at the same time dry rhetoric. This is especially characteristic of the 1940s and 1950s, when, for example, the building of the Hermitage according to the designs of L. Klenze and other structures were created in St. Petersburg. Eclectic use of Baroque architectural forms is also increasingly common. During these years, a gradual decline in the synthesis of architecture and sculpture begins, despite the fact that individual buildings, and primarily the colossal St. Isaac's Cathedral, built by the middle of the 19th century. designed by A. A. Montferrand (1786-1858) are still distinguished by many advantages and although less perfect form, but retain the features of the majestic style and monumental scope of the previous period.

The second half of the 19th century was marked by flourishing of Russian fine arts, in which realism was finally established - a truthful and comprehensive reflection of the life of the people, the desire to rebuild this life on the basis of equality and justice.

The central theme of art was the people, not only the oppressed and suffering, but also the people - the creator of history, the people-fighter, the creator of all the best that is in life.

In 1863, a large group of graduates of the Academy of Arts refused to write competitive works on the proposed theme from Scandinavian mythology and left the Academy. I.N. was at the head of the rebels. Kramskoy (1837-1887). They united in an artel and began to live in a commune. Seven years later, it broke up, but by this time the "Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions" was born.

The peasantry enjoyed special sympathy for the Wanderers. They showed his need, suffering, oppressed position. At that time, the ideological side of art was valued more than the aesthetic. Perhaps the greatest tribute to ideology was given by V.G. Perov (1834–1882) (“Seeing the Dead Man”, “The Last Tavern at the Outpost”, “Troika”).

In the work of I. N. Kramskoy, the main place was occupied by portrait painting. Kramskoy created a whole gallery of wonderful portraits of Russian writers, artists, public figures: Tolstoy, Saltykov-Shchedrin, Nekrasov, Shishkin and others.

The work of V. M. Vasnetsov (1848–1926) is closely connected with Russian folk tales, epics, the plots of which he took as the basis of his paintings.

The Wanderers made genuine discoveries in landscape painting. (A. K. Savrasov, F. A. Vasiliev).

I.I. became the singer of the Russian forest, the epic breadth of Russian nature. Shishkin (1832-1898). A.I. Kuindzhi (1841-1910) was attracted by the picturesque play of light and air. Russian landscape painting of the 19th century reached its pinnacle. reached in the work of I. I. Levitan (1860–1900). In the second half of the XIX century. account for the creative flowering of I. E. Repin, V. I. Surikov and V. A. Serov.

Painting had a direct impact on easel sculpture, it also showed a craving for genre motifs and a detailed narrative disclosure of the plot. For the development monumental sculpture and architecture in the era of the crisis of the autocratic-feudal system, conditions were extremely unfavorable.

2.2 Musical culture of Russia

In the 19th century, along with the tremendous development literature, observed and the brightest ups musical culture Russia, and music and literature are in interaction, which enriches other artistic images. If, for example, A.S. Pushkin in his poem "Ruslan and Lyudmila" gave an organic solution to the idea of ​​national patriotism, finding the appropriate national forms for its implementation, then M.I. Glinka discovered new, potential options in Pushkin's fairy-tale heroic plot and modernized it.

The work of N.V. Gogol, inextricably linked with the problem of nationality, had a significant influence on the development of the musical culture of Russia in the 19th century. Gogol's plots formed the basis of the operas "May Night" and "The Night Before Christmas" by N. Rimsky-Korsakov, "Sorochinsky Fair" by M. Mussorgsky, "Blacksmith Vakula" ("Cherevichki") by P. Tchaikovsky, etc. Rimsky-Korsakov created a whole "fabulous" world of operas: from "May Night" and "The Snow Maiden" to "Sadko", for which a certain ideal world in its harmony is common.

The flourishing of Russian musical culture was facilitated by the work of P. I. Tchaikovsky, who wrote many excellent works and brought something new to this area. Thus, his opera "Eugene Onegin" was experimental in nature, which he called not an opera, but "lyrical scenes".

At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, a certain revision of musical traditions took place in the work of composers, a departure from social issues and an increase in interest in inner world human, to philosophical and ethical problems. The "sign" of the times was the strengthening of the lyrical beginning in musical culture. N. Rimsky-Korsakov, who then acted as the main keeper of the creative ideas of the famous " mighty handful”(it included M. Balakirev, M. Mussorgsky, P. Cui, A. Borodin, N. Rimsky-Korsakov), created the opera “The Tsar's Bride” full of lyricism.

2.3 Russian theater

A significant phenomenon in the cultural life of Russia in the first half of the XIX century. theater became. Popularity theatrical art grew. The fortress theater was replaced by "free" - state and private.

With great success there were such dramatic works as "Woe from Wit" by A.S. Griboedov, "The Government Inspector" by N.V. Gogol, etc. the first plays by A.N. Ostrovsky appeared. In the 1920s and 1940s, the outstanding Russian actor M.S. Shchepkin, a friend of A.I. Herzen and N.V. Gogol, demonstrated his multifaceted talent in Moscow.

Other remarkable artists also enjoyed great success with the public - V.A. Karatygin - the premiere of the Moscow stage, P.S. Mochalov, who reigned on the stage of the Moscow Drama Theater, etc.

Significant progress in the first half of the XIX century. achieved ballet theater, whose history at that time was largely associated with the names of the famous French directors Didelot and Perrault. In 1815 on stage Bolshoi Theater Petersburg, the wonderful Russian dancer A.I. Istomina made her debut.

By the end of the 50s - beginning of the 60s Theatre of Drama aroused keen interest of the Russian society, which evaluated it as one of the most important spiritual centers of the country. In the spirit of widespread freedom-loving moods, the theater was seen as a kind of “tribune in defense of man.”

A large role in the formation of the realistic Russian theater was assigned to the work of A. N. Ostrovsky. The innovative theatrical ideas of Ostrovsky were embodied primarily in the imperial Maly (Moscow) and Alexandrinsky (Petersburg) theaters, and from the imperial stages they moved to private enterprises that worked in the provinces.

The Russian theater is gradually becoming a spokesman for exclusively Russian social and public ideas. New generations of playwrights, directors, actors are already focusing entirely on history and social phenomena Russia.

The time of the late XIX - early XX centuries is associated with the formation of new theatrical aesthetics, which at first coincided with revolutionary social transformations.

M. V. Lentovsky saw the theater in the development of the traditions of the areal art, coming from buffoonery, as gala performances that captivate the audience and turn into mass festivities.

K. S. Stanislavsky and V. I. Nemirovich-Danchenko in the Moscow Art Theater became the founders of the psychological theater, developing and supplementing each stage image an invisible backstory to the viewer, stimulating certain actions of the character.

The aesthetics of V. E. Meyerhold was the development of theatrical forms, in particular, stage movement, he is the author of the system of theatrical biomechanics.

The Maly Theater unshakably kept the dramatic classical foundations, continuing the historical traditions in the new social conditions.

Conclusion

In the 19th century, Russia achieved impressive success in the field of culture. The world fund forever included the works of many Russian artists. The process of formation of national culture was completed.

In the history of Russian culture late XIX- the beginning of the XX century. was called the "silver age" of Russian culture, which begins with the "World of Art" and ends with acmeism.

At the beginning of the XX century. the "Russian avant-garde" arose. Its representatives K.S. Malevich, R.R. Falk, M.Z. Chagall and others preached the art of "pure" forms and external non-objectivity. They were the forerunners of abstractionism and had a huge impact on the development of world art.

List of used literature

1. General history of art. Volume 5. Art of the 19th century. M., 1964.

2. Georgieva T. S. Russian culture: history and modernity. - M., 1999.

3. Zezina M.R., Koshman L.V., Shulgin V.S. History of Russian culture. M., 1990.

4. Ilyina T.V. History of art. Russian and Soviet art. M., 1989.

5. Yakovkina N. I. History of Russian culture: XIX century. - St. Petersburg, 2002 /

Georgieva T. S. Russian culture: history and modernity. - M., 1999. - S. 307

Georgieva T. S. Russian culture: history and modernity. - M., 1999. - S. 278.

General history of arts. Volume 5. - M, 1964. - S. 365.

Yakovkina N. I. History of Russian culture: XIX century. - St. Petersburg, 2002. - S. 527.

The culture of the 19th century is a culture of freedom, activity, initiative and efficiency. It was in this century that human thought received the widest scope for freedom of expression. However, the frames of the previous century were also valued. Rigidity also manifested itself in relation to people with each other. The romanticized criteria of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the passions and sentiments of the eighteenth, were replaced by strict mercantilism. Financial position and wealth are on a higher level than human feelings or spiritual and moral values. The dominant of sober calculation is clearly expressed.

19th century culture - main features

The first half of the nineteenth century for Europe is a time of rapid development of manufactories and industry, as well as active social transformation. People of art tried to convey with their creativity the images and trends of the new time that they caught and interpreted. The beginning of the century was marked by the collapse of artistic principles born in past centuries and the destruction of old plots.

France - trendsetter

For several centuries in a row, France was considered a trendsetter throughout Europe. The culture of the 19th century bears the distinctive features of French views. In Paris, the so-called Salons began to be held, where specially selected works of painters were exhibited. The public discussed their work, and magazines and newspapers published numerous reviews. Art culture The 19th century was transformed along with society. The main themes were cities, houses, rooms, dishes, dresses and more. Usually, the World Industrial Exhibition was also held in Paris (about once every couple of years), where, along with the latest technology, paintings and sculpture were also demonstrated.

Nineteenth century Western European architecture

The rapid development of industry also caused a rapid influx of people into the cities. Megacities were already emerging. In the middle of the 19th century, the appearance of many cities in Western Europe changed dramatically. A system of radial and main streets was laid, which replaced the medieval isolation. Industrial enterprises began to spring up like mushrooms after rain in the suburbs and on the outskirts. European culture of the 19th century, in particular architectural solutions, largely depended on industrial progress. The emergence of new materials (reinforced concrete, steel, cast iron) has made its own adjustments to the construction of buildings.

Eclecticism - the basis of the culture of Western Europe in the 19th century

It was eclecticism as an architectural style based on decorative forms that began to triumph at that time. The culture of the 19th century was already “prepared” by neo-Gothic, classicism, baroque and rococo, neo-renaissance and Romanesque-Byzantine style. The very word "eclecticos" in Greek means "chooser", which perfectly characterizes the direction in the art of the nineteenth century, reflecting the psychology of a contemporary of that period, who considers his era and civilization simply the pinnacle of history. The culture of the 19th century is based precisely on the apology of such principles and views.