What is romanticism? The era of romanticism. Representatives of romanticism
V. A. Zhukovsky - the first Russian romantic poet, a person who played an outstanding role in the formation of the romantic trend in Russian literature.
At the time of his literary apprenticeship, Zhukovsky was greatly influenced by Karamzin, was an admirer of the Western European sentimental and pre-romantic poetry of Jung and Gray. A distinctive feature of the poet's work appeared early - the cult of spiritual purity, kindness, philanthropy and humility.
In 1802, Zhukovsky translated the elegy of the English sentimentalist poet Thomas Gray "An elegy written in a rural cemetery." So a new type came to Russian poetry lyrical hero- melancholy pensive, focused on his inner world, turned to thoughts about the eternal.
Beginning in 1808, not sentimental, but romantic beginning prevailed in Zhukovsky's poems. In the love lyrics of the poet, the romantic idea of “two worlds”, the concept of a “better world” clearly sound, motives of an unrealizable dream arise, tragic love, imperfections of earthly life (“My friend, my guardian angel ...”, “To Nina”, “Traveler”, “To her”, “Desire”, “Singer”, “Swimmer”, “Dreams”).
Love in the work of Zhukovsky is the highest of earthly feelings. Happiness is unattainable in real life: “Oh dear friend, fate ordered us to part...”, however, love is omnipotent, “it is not subject to time or place”, because in “ better world”, Outside the limits of imperfect earthly existence, harmony will inevitably be found: “There is a better world; there we are free to love” (“Song”).
Zhukovsky's work predetermined a lot in subsequent Russian poetry, in Russian life in general. It was in his work as a poet and translator that Russian literature was combined with world artistic development, and the “golden age” of Russian culture begins with his name.
Among Russian writers, the first romantic poet who organically accepted and developed the traditions of the new literary trend, undoubtedly, should be called V. A. Zhukovsky. One of the favorite genres of this poet was the ballad - a genre very popular in the Middle Ages. A ballad is a poetic work based on a plot of a historical, fantastic, folklore, everyday nature. In the Middle Ages, ballads were sung to the accompaniment of musical instruments.
In Zhukovsky's poetry, there is a clear connection with the song tradition of the Middle Ages: the ballads of the Russian romantic are melodic and musical. The work of Zhukovsky is also closely connected with the work of European romantics: most of the plots are borrowed from the works of F. Schiller, I. V. Goethe and other famous authors. However, the free translation or reworking of a work by Zhukovsky brought into the ballads the individual perception and experiences of the Russian poet, sometimes revealing new aspects of a particular plot.
The theme of the collision of a person with mysterious elemental creatures - mermaids, undines, forest king- sounds more than once in Zhukovsky's ballads. Similar motifs were common in the legends of the Middle Ages, from which many Romantic poets drew inspiration. In the ballad "Fisherman" the carelessness and gullibility of a man who thoughtlessly rushes towards a mermaid leads him to death. This plot is very ancient: for example, the death of passing sailors is carried by the sweet singing of sirens. ancient Greek mythology. Both the mermaid and her siren predecessors are creatures associated with water; and the water element in myths symbolizes uncontrollable emotions. For a young, inexperienced person, it is not uncommon for the desire to blindly follow where his own feelings and passions call him, so the voice of the mermaid found a response in the soul of the fisherman:
In it, the whole soul of melancholy is full,
As if a friend whispered!
Motives characteristic of romanticism: the action takes place against a picturesque background of nature, mysterious creatures take part in the events, in addition, a special gloomy coloring is inherent in the ballads, which is also following romantic traditions.
The plot of one of his most famous ballads - "Svetlana" - Zhukovsky also borrowed from European authors who turned to ancient legends. However, this ballad is characterized by a pronounced Russian flavor: the poet describes the rituals of Christmas divination, which were still preserved in the villages in his time:
Once a Epiphany Eve
The girls guessed:
Shoe behind the gate
Taking off their feet, they threw ...
The ballad reflected the motif of meeting with the dead groom, which was used by many romantic writers. The theme of human love and relationship with God is repeated in another ballad by Zhukovsky - "Lyudmila", which, perhaps, can be called a double of "Svetlana". The plots of both ballads are similar, because the author wrote them on the basis of the same material. However, Lyudmila, unlike Svetlana, grumbles at God to bring news of the death of her fiancé. Therefore, the dead man dragged her to his grave - since the girl considered God her enemy, she lost protection from the gloomy power of sinister forces. The idea is practically the same as in the ballad "Svetlana" - a person must humbly accept what God sends, without depriving himself of help from above with his own pride and grumbling.
In the ballads "Svetlana" and "Lyudmila", as in other works of Zhukovsky, motifs characteristic of romanticism sound: an ominous race that ends at an open grave, a cemetery, a dead groom who has come to a living bride.
The artistic method that developed at the beginning of the 19th century. and widely used as a direction (flow) in the art and literature of most European countries, including Russia, as well as in the literature of the United States. To more later eras the term "romanticism" is applied largely on the basis of the artistic experience of the first half of XIX V.
The work of romantics in each country has its own specifics, explained by the peculiarities of national historical development, and at the same time it also has some stable common features.
In this generalizing characteristic of romanticism, one can distinguish: the historical soil on which it arises, the features of the method and the character of the hero.
The common historical ground on which arose European romanticism, was a turning point associated with the French Revolution. Romantics adopted from their time the idea of individual freedom put forward by the revolution, but at the same time in Western countries they realized the defenselessness of man in a society where monetary interests were victorious. Therefore, the attitude of many romantics is characterized by confusion and confusion in front of the outside world, the tragedy of the fate of the individual.
The main event of Russian history at the beginning of the XIX century. came Patriotic War 1812 and the Decembrist uprising of 1825, which had a huge impact on the whole course artistic development Russia and determined the range of topics and issues that worried Russian romantics (see Russian literature XIX V.).
But for all the originality and originality of Russian romanticism, its development is inseparable from the general movement of European romantic literature, just as milestones are inseparable. national history from the course of European events: political and social ideas Decembrists are successively connected with the basic principles put forward by the French Revolution.
With the general tendency to deny the surrounding world, romanticism did not constitute a unity of social political views. On the contrary, the views of the romantics on society, their positions in society, the struggle of their time were sharply dissimilar - from revolutionary (more precisely, rebellious) to conservative and reactionary. This often gives grounds for dividing romanticism into reactionary, contemplative, liberal, progressive, etc. It is more correct, however, to speak of progressiveness or reactionaryness not of the method of romanticism itself, but of the social, philosophical or political views of the writer, given that the artistic work of such, for example, , a romantic poet, like V. A. Zhukovsky, is much broader and richer than his political and religious convictions.
A special interest in the personality, the nature of its relationship to the surrounding reality, on the one hand, and the opposition real world ideal (non-bourgeois, anti-bourgeois) - on the other. The romantic artist does not set himself the task of accurately reproducing reality. It is more important for him to express his attitude towards her, moreover, to create his own, fictional image of the world, often on the principle of contrast with surrounding life so that through this fiction, through contrast, to convey to the reader both his ideal and his rejection of the world he denies. This active personal principle in romanticism leaves an imprint on the entire structure artwork determines its subjective nature. The events that take place in romantic poems, dramas and other works are important only for revealing the characteristics of the personality that interests the author.
So, for example, the story of Tamara in the poem "The Demon" by M. Yu. Lermontov is subordinated to the main task - to recreate the "restless spirit" - the spirit of the Demon, to convey tragedy in cosmic images modern man and, finally, the attitude of the poet himself to reality,
Where they do not know how without fear
Neither hate nor love.
The literature of romanticism put forward its hero, most often expressing author's attitude to reality. This is a man with special strong feelings, with a uniquely acute reaction to a world that rejects the laws that others obey. Therefore, he is always placed above those around him (“... I am not created for people: I am too proud for them, they are too mean for me,” says Arbenin in M. Lermontov’s drama “A Strange Man”).
This hero is lonely, and the theme of loneliness varies in works of various genres, especially often in lyrics (“It is lonely in the wild north ...” G. Heine, “An oak leaf came off a darling branch ...” M. Yu. Lermontov). Lonely are the heroes of Lermontov, the heroes of J. Byron's oriental poems. Even rebel heroes are lonely: Byron's Cain, A. Mickiewicz's Conrad Wallenrod. These are exceptional characters in exceptional circumstances.
The heroes of romanticism are restless, passionate, indomitable. “I was born / With a seething soul, like lava,” Arbenin exclaims in Lermontov's Masquerade. “Hateful is the languor of rest” to the hero of Byron; “... this is a human personality, indignant against the general and, in its proud rebellion, leaning on itself,” wrote V. G. Belinsky about Byron's hero.
The romantic personality, carrying rebelliousness and denial, is vividly recreated by the Decembrist poets - representatives of the first stage of Russian romanticism (K. F. Ryleev, A. A. Bestuzhev-Marlinsky, V. K. Kyuchelbeker).
Increased interest in personality peace of mind man contributed to the flourishing of lyrical and lyrical-epic genres - in a number of countries it was the era of romanticism that put forward great national poets (in France - Hugo, in Poland - Mickiewicz, in England - Byron, in Germany - Heine). At the same time, the deepening of the romantics into the human "I" in many ways prepared the psychological realism XIX V. Historicism was a major discovery of romanticism. If the whole life appeared before the romantics in motion, in the struggle of opposites, then this was also reflected in the depiction of the past. Was born
historical novel(V. Scott, V. Hugo, A. Dumas), historical drama. Romantics sought to colorfully convey the color of the era, both national and geographical. They did a lot to popularize oral folk art, as well as works medieval literature. Promoting the original art of their people, the Romantics drew attention to artistic treasures other peoples, emphasizing the unique features of each culture. Turning to folklore, romantics often embodied legends in the genre of a ballad - a plot song with dramatic content (German romantics, poets of the "lake school" in England, V. A. Zhukovsky in Russia). The era of romanticism was marked by the heyday literary translation(in Russia, V. A. Zhukovsky was a brilliant propagandist of not only Western European, but also Eastern poetry). Rejecting the strict norms prescribed by the aesthetics of classicism, the Romantics proclaimed the right of every poet to diversity. art forms created by all nations.
Romanticism does not immediately disappear from the scene with the rise of critical realism. For example, in France such famous romantic novels Hugo, like Les Misérables and '93, was created many years after completion creative way realists Stendhal and O. de Balzac. In Russia, the romantic poems of M. Yu. Lermontov, the lyrics of F. I. Tyutchev were created when literature had already declared itself significant successes of realism.
But the fate of romanticism did not end there. Many decades later, in other historical conditions, writers often again turned to romantic means of artistic representation. So, the young M. Gorky, creating at the same time both realistic and romantic stories, it was in romantic works most fully expressed the pathos of the struggle, the spontaneous impulse to the revolutionary reorganization of society (the image of Danko in "The Old Woman Izergil", "The Song of the Falcon", "The Song of the Petrel").
However, in the XX century. romanticism no longer constitutes a whole artistic direction. It's about only about the features of romanticism in the work of individual writers.
IN Soviet literature features of the romantic method were clearly manifested in the work of many prose writers (A. S. Grin, A. P. Gaidar, I. E. Babel) and poets (E. G. Bagritsky, M. A. Svetlov, K. M. Simonov , B. A. Ruchev).
Romanticism is an ideological and artistic trend in the culture of the late 18th - 1st half of the 19th centuries. Romanticism arose as a response to the disappointment that prevailed in Europe in the ideals of the French Revolution of 1789-1794, the Enlightenment and bourgeois values. So what is romanticism, and what are its signs?
The main features of romanticism
Unlike classicism, which asserted the inviolability of state foundations and serving the public interest, the new direction expressed the desire for personal freedom, independence from society. Romanticism brought a lot of new things to all spheres of artistic activity.
Works of a lyrical orientation made it possible to reflect the emotions of a person. A strong personality becomes a new hero, experiencing a discrepancy between internal aspirations and the requirements of society. Nature also acts as an independent character. Her image (often with elements of mysticism) helps to convey the state of a person.
Appeal to national history, folk epics became the basis of a new theme. There are works that highlight the heroic past, depicting heroes sacrificing their lives for the sake of lofty goals. Legends and traditions made it possible to escape from the ordinary into the world of fantasy and symbols.
Romanticism in literature
Romanticism arose in Germany, in the literary and philosophical circles of the Jena school (the Schlegel brothers and others). Outstanding representatives of the direction are F. Schelling, the brothers Grimm, Hoffmann, G. Heine.
In England, new ideas were adopted by W. Scott, J. Keats, Shelley, and W. Blake. The most prominent representative of romanticism was J. Byron. His work had a great influence on the spread of the direction, including in Russia. The popularity of his "Journey of Childe Harold" led to the emergence of the phenomenon of "Byronism" (Pechorin in "A Hero of Our Time" by M. Lermontov).
French romantics - Chateaubriand, V. Hugo, P. Merimet, George Sand, Polish - A. Mickiewicz, American - F. Cooper, G. Longfellow, etc.
Russian romantic writers
In Russia, romanticism was developed after the Patriotic War of 1812 due to the refusal of Alexander I from liberalization public life, the beginning of the reaction, consigning to oblivion the merits before the patronymic of a whole galaxy of heroes. This was the impetus for the emergence of works that depict strong characters, violent passions, conflicts. During this significant period for Russian culture, literature appeared using new artistic means. So what is romanticism in literature? This greatest development such genres as ballad, elegy, lyrical-epic poem, historical novel.
Features of romanticism are manifested in the work of V. Zhukovsky and are developed by Baratynsky, Ryleev, Kuchelbeker, Pushkin ("Eugene Onegin"), Tyutchev. And the works of Lermontov, the "Russian Byron", are considered the pinnacle of Russian romanticism.
Romanticism in music and painting
What is romanticism in music? This is a map of the world emotional experiences, striving for ideals through fabulous and historical images. Hence the development of such genres as symphonic poem, opera, ballet, song genre (ballad, romance).
Leading romantic composers - F. Mendelssohn, G. Berlioz, R. Schumann, F. Chopin, I. Brahms, A. Dvorak, R. Wagner and others. In Russia - M. Glinka, A. Dargomyzhsky, M. Balakirev, A. Borodin, M. Mussorgsky, N. Rimsky-Korsakov, P. Tchaikovsky, S. Rachmaninov. In music, romanticism lasted until the beginning of the twentieth century.
Romantic painting is characterized by dynamic composition, a sense of movement, rich color. In France, these are Gericault, Delacroix, David; in Germany - Runge, Koch, Biedermeier style. In England - Turner, Constable, pre-Raphaelites Rossetti, Morris, Burne-Jones. In Russian painting - K. Bryullov, O. Kiprensky, Aivazovsky.
From this article, you learned what romanticism is, the definition of this concept and its main features.
2) SentimentalismSentimentalism - literary direction which recognized feeling as the main criterion human personality. Sentimentalism originated in Europe and Russia at about the same time, in the second half of the 18th century, as a counterbalance to the harsh classical theory that prevailed at that time.
Sentimentalism was closely associated with the ideas of the Enlightenment. He gave priority to manifestations spiritual qualities man, psychological analysis, sought to awaken in the hearts of readers an understanding of human nature and love for it, along with humane attitude to all the weak, the suffering and the persecuted. The feelings and experiences of a person are worthy of attention, regardless of his class affiliation - the idea of \u200b\u200bthe universal equality of people.
The main genres of sentimentalism:
story
elegy
novel
letters
trips
memoirs
England can be considered the birthplace of sentimentalism. Poets J. Thomson, T. Gray, E. Jung tried to awaken in readers a love for the environment, drawing in their works simple and peaceful rural landscapes, sympathy for the needs of poor people. S. Richardson was a prominent representative of English sentimentalism. In the first place, he put forward psychological analysis and drew the attention of readers to the fate of his heroes. Writer Lawrence Stern preached humanism as the highest value of man.
In French literature sentimentalism is represented by the novels of Abbé Prevost, P.K. de Chamblain de Marivaux, J.-J. Rousseau, A. B. de Saint-Pierre.
IN German literature- works by F. G. Klopstock, F. M. Klinger, J. W. Goethe, J. F. Schiller, S. Laroche.
Sentimentalism came to Russian literature with translations of the works of Western European sentimentalists. The first sentimental works of Russian literature can be called "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow" by A.N. Radishchev, “Letters from a Russian Traveler” and “Poor Lisa” by N.I. Karamzin.
3) Romanticism
Romanticism originated in Europe in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. as a counterweight to the previously dominant classicism with its pragmatism and adherence to established laws. Romanticism, in contrast to classicism, advocated a departure from the rules. The prerequisites for romanticism lie in the Great French Revolution of 1789-1794, which overthrew the power of the bourgeoisie, and with it the bourgeois laws and ideals.
Romanticism, like sentimentalism, paid great attention to the personality of a person, his feelings and experiences. Main conflict romanticism was the opposition of the individual and society. Against the backdrop of scientific and technological progress, the increasingly complex social and political structure there was a spiritual devastation of the personality. Romantics sought to draw the attention of readers to this circumstance, to provoke a protest in society against lack of spirituality and selfishness.
Romantics were disappointed in the world around them, and this disappointment is clearly seen in their works. Some of them, such as F. R. Chateaubriand and V. A. Zhukovsky, believed that a person cannot resist mysterious forces, must obey them and not try to change his fate. Other romantics, such as J. Byron, P. B. Shelley, S. Petofi, A. Mickiewicz, early A. S. Pushkin, believed that it was necessary to fight the so-called "world evil", and opposed it with the strength of the human spirit.
The inner world of the romantic hero was full of experiences and passions, throughout the entire work the author forced him to fight the world around him, duty and conscience. Romantics portrayed feelings in their extreme manifestations: high and passionate love, cruel betrayal, despicable envy, base ambition. But the romantics were interested not only in the inner world of a person, but also in the secrets of being, the essence of all living things, perhaps that is why there is so much mystical and mysterious in their works.
In German literature, romanticism was most clearly expressed in the works of Novalis, W. Tieck, F. Hölderlin, G. Kleist, and E. T. A. Hoffmann. English romanticism is represented by the work of W. Wordsworth, S. T. Coleridge, R. Southey, W. Scott, J. Keats, J. G. Byron, P. B. Shelley. In France, romanticism appeared only by the beginning of the 1820s. The main representatives were F. R. Chateaubriand, J. Stahl, E. P. Senancourt, P. Merimet, V. Hugo, J. Sand, A. Vigny, A. Dumas (father).
The development of Russian romanticism was greatly influenced by the French Revolution and the Patriotic War of 1812. Romanticism in Russia is usually divided into two periods - before and after the Decembrist uprising in 1825. Representatives of the first period (V.A. Zhukovsky, K.N. Batyushkov, A.S. Pushkin of the period of southern exile), believed in the victory of spiritual freedom over everyday life, but after the defeat of the Decembrists, executions and exiles romantic hero turns into a person rejected and misunderstood by society, and the conflict between the individual and society becomes insoluble. Prominent representatives of the second period were M. Yu. Lermontov, E. A. Baratynsky, D. V. Venevitinov, A. S. Khomyakov, F. I. Tyutchev.
The main genres of romanticism:
Elegy
Idyll
Ballad
Novella
Novel
fantasy story
Aesthetic and theoretical canons of romanticism
The idea of duality is a struggle between objective reality and subjective worldview. Realism lacks this concept. The idea of duality has two modifications:
escape to the world of fantasy;
travel, road concept.
Hero concept:
the romantic hero is always an exceptional personality;
the hero is always in conflict with the surrounding reality;
the dissatisfaction of the hero, which manifests itself in a lyrical tone;
aesthetic purposefulness towards an unattainable ideal.
Psychological parallelism - the identity of the internal state of the hero to the surrounding nature.
Speech style of a romantic work:
ultimate expression;
the principle of contrast at the level of composition;
abundance of characters.
Aesthetic categories of romanticism:
rejection of bourgeois reality, its ideology and pragmatism; romantics denied the value system, which was based on stability, hierarchy, a strict system of values (home, comfort, Christian morality);
cultivation of individuality and artistic worldview; the reality rejected by romanticism was subject to subjective worlds based on the creative imagination of the artist.
4) Realism
Realism is a literary trend that objectively reflects the surrounding reality with the artistic means available to it. The main technique of realism is the typification of the facts of reality, images and characters. Realist writers put their characters in certain conditions and show how these conditions affected the personality.
While romantic writers were worried about the discrepancy between the world around them and their inner worldview, the realist writer is interested in how the world around influences the personality. The actions of the heroes of realistic works are determined by life circumstances, in other words, if a person lived in a different time, in a different place, in a different socio-cultural environment, then he himself would be different.
The foundations of realism were laid by Aristotle in the 4th century. BC e. Instead of the concept of "realism", he used the concept of "imitation", which is close to him in meaning. Realism then saw a resurgence during the Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment. In the 40s. 19th century in Europe, Russia and America, realism replaced romanticism.
Depending on the content motives recreated in the work, there are:
critical (social) realism;
realism of characters;
psychological realism;
grotesque realism.
Critical realism focused on the real circumstances that affect a person. Examples of critical realism are the works of Stendhal, O. Balzac, C. Dickens, W. Thackeray, A. S. Pushkin, N. V. Gogol, I. S. Turgenev, F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy, A. P. Chekhov.
Characteristic realism, on the contrary, showed a strong personality who could fight with circumstances. Psychological realism emphasized inner world, psychology of heroes. The main representatives of these varieties of realism are F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy.
In grotesque realism, deviations from reality are allowed; in some works, deviations border on fantasy, while the more grotesque, the more the author criticizes reality. Grotesque realism is developed in the works of Aristophanes, F. Rabelais, J. Swift, E. Hoffmann, in the satirical stories of N. V. Gogol, the works of M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, M. A. Bulgakov.
5) Modernism
Modernism is a collection of artistic movements that promoted freedom of expression. Modernism originated in Western Europe in the second half of the 19th century. How new form creativity as opposed to traditional art. Modernism manifested itself in all kinds of art - painting, architecture, literature.
The main distinguishing feature of modernism is its ability to change the world around. The author does not seek to realistically or allegorically depict reality, as it was in realism, or the inner world of the hero, as it was in sentimentalism and romanticism, but depicts his own inner world and his own attitude to the surrounding reality, expresses personal impressions and even fantasies.
Features of modernism:
denial of the classical artistic heritage;
the declared divergence from the theory and practice of realism;
orientation to an individual, not a social person;
increased attention to the spiritual, and not the social sphere of human life;
focus on form over content.
The major currents of modernism were Impressionism, Symbolism and Art Nouveau. Impressionism sought to capture the moment in the form in which the author saw or felt it. In this author's perception, the past, present and future can be intertwined, the impression that some object or phenomenon has on the author is important, and not this object itself.
Symbolists tried to find a secret meaning in everything that happened, endowed familiar images and words with mystical meaning. Art Nouveau promoted the rejection of the right geometric shapes and straight lines in favor of smooth and curved lines. Art Nouveau manifested itself especially brightly in architecture and applied art.
In the 80s. 19th century a new trend of modernism was born - decadence. In the art of decadence, a person is placed in unbearable circumstances, he is broken, doomed, has lost his taste for life.
The main features of decadence:
cynicism (nihilistic attitude towards universal values);
eroticism;
tonatos (according to Z. Freud - the desire for death, decline, decomposition of the personality).
In literature, modernism is represented by the following trends:
acmeism;
symbolism;
futurism;
imaginism.
Most prominent representatives modernism in literature are the French poets Ch. Baudelaire, P. Verlaine, the Russian poets N. Gumilyov, A. A. Blok, V. V. Mayakovsky, A. Akhmatova, I. Severyanin, the English writer O. Wilde, American writer E. Poe, Scandinavian playwright G. Ibsen.
6) Naturalism
Naturalism is the name of a trend in European literature and art that arose in the 70s. 19th century and especially widely deployed in the 80-90s, when naturalism became the most influential trend. The theoretical justification of the new trend was given by Emile Zola in the book "Experimental Novel".
End of the 19th century (especially the 80s) marks the flourishing and strengthening of industrial capital, which develops into financial capital. This corresponds, on the one hand, high level technology and increased exploitation, on the other hand, the growth of self-consciousness and the class struggle of the proletariat. The bourgeoisie is turning into a reactionary class fighting a new revolutionary force - the proletariat. The petty bourgeoisie fluctuates between these main classes, and these fluctuations are reflected in the positions of petty-bourgeois writers who have joined naturalism.
The main requirements presented by naturalists to literature: scientific character, objectivity, apoliticality in the name of "universal truth". Literature must be up to par. modern science must be imbued with science. It is clear that naturalists base their works only on that science which does not negate the existing social system. Naturalists make the basis of their theory the mechanistic natural-scientific materialism of the type of E. Haeckel, G. Spencer and C. Lombroso, adapting the doctrine of heredity to the interests of the ruling class (heredity is declared the cause of social stratification, which gives advantages to one over the other), the philosophy of positivism of Auguste Comte and petty-bourgeois utopians (Saint-Simon).
By objectively and scientifically showing the shortcomings of modern reality, French naturalists hope to influence the minds of people and thereby cause a series of reforms to be carried out in order to save the existing system from the impending revolution.
The theorist and leader of French naturalism, E. Zola ranked G. Flaubert, the Goncourt brothers, A. Daudet and a number of other lesser-known writers as naturalists. Zola attributed the French realists to the immediate predecessors of naturalism: O. Balzac and Stendhal. But in fact, none of these writers, not excluding Zola himself, was a naturalist in the sense in which Zola the theoretician understood this trend. Naturalism as the style of the leading class was joined for a time by writers who were very heterogeneous both in their artistic method and in belonging to various class groups. It is characteristic that the unifying moment was not the artistic method, but the reformist tendencies of naturalism.
The followers of naturalism are characterized by only a partial recognition of the set of requirements put forward by the theorists of naturalism. Following one of the principles of this style, they are repelled from others, differing sharply from each other, representing both different social trends and different artistic methods. Whole line The followers of naturalism accepted its reformist essence, rejecting without hesitation even such a requirement typical of naturalism as the requirement of objectivity and accuracy. So did the German "early naturalists" (M. Kretzer, B. Bille, W. Belshe and others).
Under the sign of decay, rapprochement with impressionism, the further development of naturalism began. Arose in Germany somewhat later than in France, German naturalism was a predominantly petty-bourgeois style. Here, the disintegration of the patriarchal petty bourgeoisie and the intensification of the processes of capitalization creates more and more cadres of intelligentsia, who by no means always find a use for themselves. More and more disillusionment with the power of science penetrates their midst. Gradually, hopes for resolving social contradictions within the framework of the capitalist system are shattered.
German naturalism, as well as naturalism in Scandinavian literature, is entirely a transitional step from naturalism to impressionism. Thus, the famous German historian Lamprecht in his "History of the German people" proposed to call this style "physiological impressionism". This term is further used by a number of historians of German literature. Indeed, all that remains of the naturalistic style known in France is a reverence for physiology. Many German naturalist writers do not even try to hide their tendentiousness. It usually centers on some problem, social or physiological, around which facts illustrating it are grouped (alcoholism in Hauptmann's Before Sunrise, heredity in Ibsen's Ghosts).
The founders of German naturalism were A. Goltz and F. Shlyaf. Their basic principles are outlined in Goltz's pamphlet Art, where Goltz states that "art tends to become nature again, and it becomes nature according to the existing conditions of reproduction and practical application." The complexity of the plot is also denied. The place of the eventful novel of the French (Zola) is occupied by a story or short story, extremely poor in plot. The main place here is given to the painstaking transfer of moods, visual and auditory sensations. The novel is also replaced by a drama and a poem, which French naturalists treated extremely negatively as a "kind of entertainment art." Particular attention is paid to the drama (G. Ibsen, G. Hauptman, A. Goltz, F. Shlyaf, G. Zuderman), which also denies intensively developed action, gives only a catastrophe and fixation of the characters' experiences ("Nora", "Ghosts", "Before Sunrise", "Master Elze" and others). In the future, the naturalistic drama is reborn into an impressionistic, symbolic drama.
In Russia, naturalism has not received any development. The early works of F.I. Panferov and M.A. Sholokhov were called naturalistic.
7) natural school
Under the natural school, literary criticism understands the direction that originated in Russian literature in the 40s. 19th century This was an epoch of ever more acute contradictions between the feudal system and the growth of capitalist elements. Followers natural school in their works they tried to reflect the contradictions and moods of that time. The very term "natural school" appeared in criticism thanks to F. Bulgarin.
The natural school, in the extended use of the term as it was used in the 1940s, does not denote a single direction, but is a concept to a large extent conditional. The natural school included such heterogeneous writers in terms of their class basis and artistic appearance as I. S. Turgenev and F. M. Dostoevsky, D. V. Grigorovich and I. A. Goncharov, N. A. Nekrasov and I. I. Panaev.
Most common features, on the basis of which the writer was considered to belong to the natural school, were the following: socially significant topics, which captured more wide circle than even the circle of social observations (often in the "low" strata of society), a critical attitude to social reality, the realism of artistic expression, which fought against the embellishment of reality, aesthetics, romantic rhetoric.
V. G. Belinsky singled out the realism of the natural school, asserting the most important feature of the "truth", and not the "falsehood" of the image. The natural school addresses itself not to ideal, invented heroes, but to the "crowd", to the "mass", to ordinary people and most often to people of "low rank". Common in the 40s. all sorts of "physiological" essays satisfied this need for a reflection of a different, non-noble life, even if only in a reflection of the external, everyday, superficial.
N. G. Chernyshevsky especially sharply emphasizes as the most essential and basic feature of the "literature of the Gogol period" its critical, "negative" attitude towards reality - "literature of the Gogol period" is here another name for the same natural school: it is to N. V. Gogol - auto RU " dead souls"," The Inspector General "," The Overcoat "- as the ancestor, the natural school was erected by V. G. Belinsky and a number of other critics. Indeed, many writers who are classified as natural school experienced the powerful influence of various aspects of N. V. Gogol's work. In addition Gogol, the writers of the natural school were influenced by such representatives of Western European petty-bourgeois and bourgeois literature as C. Dickens, O. Balzac, George Sand.
One of the currents of the natural school, represented by the liberal, capitalizing nobility and the social strata adjoining it, was distinguished by a superficial and cautious nature of criticism of reality: this is either a harmless irony in relation to certain aspects of the nobility's reality or a noble-limited protest against serfdom. The circle of social observations of this group was limited to the manor estate. Representatives of this current of the natural school: I. S. Turgenev, D. V. Grigorovich, I. I. Panaev.
Another current of the natural school relied mainly on the urban philistinism of the 1940s, infringed, on the one hand, by the still tenacious serfdom, and, on the other, by growing industrial capitalism. A certain role here belonged to F. M. Dostoevsky, the author of a number of psychological novels and stories ("Poor people", "Double" and others).
The third trend in the natural school, represented by the so-called "raznochintsy", the ideologists of revolutionary peasant democracy, gives in its work the most clear expression of the tendencies that contemporaries (V.G. Belinsky) associated with the name of the natural school and opposed noble aesthetics. These tendencies manifested themselves most fully and sharply in N. A. Nekrasov. A. I. Herzen (“Who is to blame?”), M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (“A Tangled Case”) should be attributed to the same group.
8) Constructivism
Constructivism is an art movement that originated in Western Europe after the First World War. The origins of constructivism lie in the thesis of the German architect G. Semper, who argued that the aesthetic value of any work of art is determined by the correspondence of its three elements: the work, the material from which it is made, and the technical processing of this material.
This thesis, which was later adopted by functionalists and functionalist-constructivists (L. Wright in America, J. J. P. Oud in Holland, W. Gropius in Germany), highlights the material-technical and material-utilitarian side of art. and, in essence, the ideological side of it is emasculated.
In the West, constructivist tendencies during the First World War and in the post-war period were expressed in various directions, more or less "orthodox" interpreting the basic thesis of constructivism. So, in France and Holland, constructivism expressed itself in "purism", in "aesthetics of machines", in "neoplasticism" (art), Corbusier's aestheticizing formalism (in architecture). In Germany - in the naked cult of the thing (pseudo-constructivism), the one-sided rationalism of the Gropius school (architecture), abstract formalism (in non-objective cinema).
In Russia, a group of constructivists appeared in 1922. It included A. N. Chicherin, K. L. Zelinsky, and I. L. Selvinsky. Constructivism was originally a narrowly formal trend, highlighting the understanding of a literary work as a construction. Subsequently, the constructivists freed themselves from this narrowly aesthetic and formal bias and put forward much broader justifications for their creative platform.
A. N. Chicherin departed from constructivism, a number of authors grouped around I. L. Selvinsky and K. L. Zelinsky (V. Inber, B. Agapov, A. Gabrilovich, N. Panov), and in 1924 a literary center was organized constructivists (LCC). In its declaration, the LCC primarily proceeds from the statement about the need for art to participate as closely as possible in the "organizational onslaught of the working class", in the construction of socialist culture. From here arises the constructivist attitude to saturate art (in particular, poetry) with modern themes.
The main theme, which has always attracted the attention of constructivists, can be described as follows: "The intelligentsia in the revolution and construction." With particular attention to the image of an intellectual in the civil war (I. L. Selvinsky, "Commander 2") and in construction (I. L. Selvinsky "Pushtorg"), the constructivists, first of all, put forward in a painfully exaggerated form its specific gravity and significance under construction. This is especially clear in Pushtorg, where the exceptional specialist Poluyarov is opposed by the incompetent communist Krol, who interferes with his work and drives him to suicide. Here the pathos of work technique as such obscures the main social conflicts of modern reality.
This exaggeration of the role of the intelligentsia finds its theoretical development in the article by the main theorist of constructivism Kornely Zelinsky "Constructivism and socialism", where he considers constructivism as a holistic worldview of the era in transition to socialism, as a condensed expression in the literature of the period being lived through. At the same time, again, the main social contradictions of this period are replaced by Zelinsky by the struggle of man and nature, the pathos of naked technology, interpreted outside social conditions, outside the class struggle. These erroneous propositions of Zelinsky, which provoked a sharp rebuff from Marxist criticism, were far from accidental and with great clarity revealed the social nature of constructivism, which is easy to outline in the creative practice of the entire group.
The social source that nourishes constructivism is undoubtedly that stratum of the urban petty bourgeoisie, which can be designated as a technically qualified intelligentsia. It is no coincidence that in the work of Selvinsky (who is the greatest poet of constructivism) of the first period, an image of a strong individuality, a powerful builder and conqueror of life, individualistic in its very essence, characteristic of the Russian bourgeois pre-war style, is undoubtedly found.
In 1930, the LCC disintegrated, and instead of it, the “Literary Brigade M. 1” was formed, declaring itself a transitional organization to the RAPP (Russian Association of Proletarian Writers), whose task is the gradual transition of writers-fellow travelers to the rails of communist ideology, to the style of proletarian literature and condemning former mistakes of constructivism, although retaining its creative method.
However, the contradictory and zigzag progress of constructivism towards the working class makes itself felt here too. Selvinsky's poem "Declaration of the Poet's Rights" testifies to this. This is also confirmed by the fact that the M. 1 brigade, having existed for less than a year, also disbanded in December 1930, admitting that it had not resolved its tasks.
9)Postmodernism
Postmodernism translated from German language literally means "what follows modernism". This literary trend appeared in the second half of the 20th century. It reflects the complexity of the surrounding reality, its dependence on the culture of previous centuries and the information richness of modernity.
Postmodernists did not like the fact that literature was divided into elite and mass. Postmodernism opposed any modernity in literature and denied mass culture. The first works of postmodernists appeared in the form of a detective story, a thriller, a fantasy, behind which a serious content was hidden.
Postmodernists believed that higher art was over. To move on, you need to learn how to properly use the lower genres of pop culture: thriller, western, fantasy, science fiction, erotica. Postmodernism finds in these genres the source of a new mythology. The works become oriented both to the elite reader and to the undemanding public.
Signs of postmodernism:
the use of previous texts as a potential for their own works (a large number of quotations, you cannot understand the work if you do not know the literature of previous eras);
rethinking the elements of the culture of the past;
multilevel text organization;
special organization of the text (game element).
Postmodernism questioned the existence of meaning as such. On the other hand, the meaning of postmodern works is determined by its inherent pathos - criticism mass culture. Postmodernism tries to blur the line between art and life. Everything that exists and has ever existed is a text. Postmodernists said that everything had already been written before them, that nothing new could be invented, and they only had to play with words, take ready-made (sometimes already invented, written by someone) ideas, phrases, texts and collect works from them. This makes no sense, because the author himself is not in the work.
Literary works are like a collage, composed of disparate images and united into a whole by the uniformity of technique. This technique is called pastiche. This Italian word translates as medley opera, and in literature it means a juxtaposition of several styles in one work. At the first stages of postmodernism, pastiche is a specific form of parody or self-parody, but then it is a way of adapting to reality, a way of showing the illusory nature of mass culture.
The concept of intertextuality is associated with postmodernism. This term was introduced by Yu. Kristeva in 1967. She believed that history and society can be considered as a text, then culture is a single intertext that serves as an avant-text (all texts that precede this one) for any newly emerging text, while individuality is lost here text that dissolves into quotations. Modernism is characterized by quotation thinking.
Intertextuality- the presence in the text of two or more texts.
Paratext- the relation of the text to the title, epigraph, afterword, preface.
Metatextuality- these can be comments or a link to the pretext.
hypertextuality- ridicule or parody of one text by another.
Architextuality- genre connection of texts.
A person in postmodernism is depicted in a state of complete destruction (in this case destruction can be understood as a violation of consciousness). There is no character development in the work, the image of the hero appears in a blurry form. This technique is called defocalization. It has two goals:
avoid excessive heroic pathos;
take the hero into the shadow: the hero is not brought to the fore, he is not needed at all in the work.
The prominent representatives of postmodernism in literature are J. Fowles, J. Barthes, A. Robbe-Grillet, F. Sollers, J. Cortazar, M. Pavic, J. Joyce and others.
Romanticism is nothing but the inner world of a person's soul, the innermost life of his heart.
V. Belinsky
I. The concept of "romanticism". Historical background. The main task of romanticism.
The last decade of the 18th - the beginning of the 19th century was a time of great social and historical upheavals, and at the same time, changes in all spheres of life. The three main events of this period are the Great French Revolution of 1789, the Napoleonic Wars, the rise of the national liberation movement in Europe.
The great French bourgeois revolution ended the Age of Enlightenment. Writers, artists, musicians witnessed grandiose historical events, revolutionary upheavals that unrecognizably transformed life. Many of them enthusiastically welcomed the changes, admired the proclamation of the ideas of "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity".
But time passed, and it became more and more noticeable that the new social order was far from the ideal of a just world that the philosophers of the 18th century foreshadowed. The time has come for disappointment in civilization, in social, industrial, political and scientific progress, resulting in new contrasts, contradictions, spiritual devastation of the individual.
In the philosophy and art of the beginning of the 19th century, tragic notes of doubt about the possibility of transforming the world sounded. Attempts to get away from reality and at the same time comprehend it caused the emergence of a new worldview system - ROMANTISM.
The term was first used by German writers and poets in 1798.
Having formed within the framework of the literary trend at the turn of the 18th - 19th centuries. in Germany, romanticism spread throughout Europe and America. The highest peak of development falls on the first quarter of the 19th century.
The very word “romanticism” (French romantisme) comes from the Spanish romance. So in the Middle Ages they called romance. In the XVIII century. it meant "strange", "fantastic", "picturesque". This value is the best indicated the essence of the era. The difference between ideals and reality was obvious to everyone. In their imagination, the romantics transformed the unattractive reality, or they closed in on themselves, went into the world of their experiences. The gap between dream and reality, the opposition of beautiful fiction to objective reality, formed the basis of the entire romantic movement. The main task of romanticism was the depiction of the inner world of a person, his spiritual life.
Disillusioned with the real, real life, the Romantics sought spiritual support in the past, thereby discovering the principle of historicism in art. As a result, there is an interest in national culture, folk life, passion for folk tales and songs.
II. romantic hero
Features of the worldview of romantics found expression in the images of romantic heroes.
A romantic hero is a complex, passionate person, whose inner world is unusually deep, endless; it is a whole universe full of contradictions.
Romantics tend to oppose the bright free personality gloomy reality, and in this opposition the image of “ extra person”, the theme of loneliness.
Progressive romantics create images strong people with unbridled energy, with violent passions, rebelling against the dilapidated laws of an unjust society. "World evil" causes protest, demands revenge, struggle. But the fate of such lone rebels is also deeply tragic: this world is dominated by incomprehensible and mysterious forces that must be obeyed and not try to change fate.
The romantic hero is not necessarily positive, the main thing is that he reflects the longing for the ideal.
III. Themes of Romanticism
Romantics were interested in all passions - both high and low, which were opposed to each other. High passion - love in all its manifestations, low - greed, ambition, envy. The theme of love occupies a dominant place and runs like a thread through the work of all romantics.
Interest in strong and vivid feelings, all-consuming passions, in the secret movements of the soul are characteristic features of romanticism.
Like the images of love, the state of mind is personified by nature. This image may be akin to the passionate nature of the romantic hero, but it may also resist him, turn out to be a hostile force with which he is forced to fight. Therefore, in the works of romantics, nature is often an element (sea, mountains, sky), with which the hero has complex relationships.
The theme of fantasy often competes with images of nature, which is probably generated by the desire to escape from the captivity of real life. Typical for romantics was the search for a wonderful, sparkling with the richness of colors of the world, opposed to gray everyday life.
IV. Genres
New themes and images demanded new genres. At this time, a fantastic story, a lyrical-epic poem, a ballad appeared in literature. The greatest artistic discovery of the era was the historical novel. W. Scott (1771-1832) became its founder. Romantic poems on medieval stories and historical novels by W. Scott are distinguished by an interest in native antiquity, in oral folk poetry.
The leading genres of the era are the short story and literary romantic fairy tale(L. Thicke, A. Arnim, K. Brentano, and, above all, E. T. A. Hoffmann). Why is interest in the fairy tale growing at this particular time? In the first two decades of the 19th century, almost all countries made a new discovery of their national history, folk customs, songs, fairy tales, rituals. It was during the era of romanticism that the first collections were published. folk songs and fairy tales. Particularly significant was the role of the German linguists and storytellers of the Brothers Grimm - Jacob, 1785-1863 and Wilhelm, 1786-1859 ("Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs", "The Bremen Town Musicians", "The Wolf and the Seven Kids", "A Pot of Porridge", " Straw, charcoal and bean", "The Brave Little Tailor"). The fairy tale began to be perceived as a manifestation of folk genius, and the Romantic, who composed fairy tales, tried to rise to this genius. Origin and design in France literary fairy tale as a genre is associated with the name of Charles Perrault (1628-1703; "Little Red Riding Hood", "Thumb Boy", "Sleeping Beauty"). Almost a hundred years later, the very concept of this genre was significantly expanded by the German romantic Ludwig Tieck (1773-1853) . His works show the connections between man and nature, the real and fantastic worlds, the inner life of a romantic person.
L. Tick. Fairy tale-short story “Blond Ekbert”
v. Romanticism in music
formed in the 20s of the XIX century under the influence of literature and developed in close connection with it.
Rejecting the rules of classicism, the romantics demanded a mixture of genres, justifying it by the fact that this corresponds to the true life of nature, where beauty and ugliness, tragic and comic are mixed. They championed free emotional art. Hence the flourishing of the genre of opera as a synthetic genre.
No less popular is the genre of song (romance). There are whole cycles of songs united by one theme. Greatest Masterpieces in the song and vocal genre was created by the Austrian composer Franz Schubert (1797-1828). German poetry, which was flourishing at that time, became for him an invaluable source of inspiration. Schubert's songs are characterized by immediacy of influence on the listener: thanks to the genius of the composer, the listener immediately becomes not an observer, but an accomplice.
Programming is of great importance. The Hungarian composer Franz Liszt (1811–1886) was a passionate propagandist of the idea of programmability in music. He embodied in music the images of the works of Dante, Petrarch, Goethe. He conveyed in music the content of the painting by Raphael (“The Betrothal”), the sculpture of Michelangelo (“The Thinker”). Liszt is an innovative composer. In connection with the program, he rethought classical genres and forms and created his own new genre - a symphonic poem.
One of the most famous works of F. Liszt is “Petrarch's Sonnet No. 104” from the cycle “Years of Wanderings”. The great poet of the Renaissance Francesco Petrarca (1304-1374) had his own “Beautiful Lady”, to whom he dedicated the muse. He met the beautiful Laura at the age of 23, but the twenty-year-old woman was already married. All his life, the poet sang of her unearthly beauty and virtues, and after the death of his beloved, he mourned her death. One of his sonnets later inspired the composer F. Liszt to create the famous piano piece:
There is no peace for me, and I will not raise a scolding.
Delight and fear in the chest, fire and ice.
Sky-high aspiration in dreams flight -
And I fall, overthrown, to the ground.
Squeezing the world in my arms, I embrace the dream.
The god of love forges an insidious captivity for me:
I am neither a prisoner nor a freeman. Waiting - will kill;
But he hesitates, and again I will heed the hope.
I am sighted - without eyes; without a tongue - I scream.
I call the end - and again I pray "For mercy!"
I curse myself - and yet I drag out my days.
My crying is my laughter. I don't need life
No death. I want my torment...
And here is my reward for the ardor of my heart!
Translation of Vyach. Ivanova
Illustration - F. Liszt "Petrarch's Sonnet No. 104"
If the music of the classicists spoke to the listeners about the harmony of the soul and the world, then the music of the romantics tells, first of all, about disharmony. This music is rebellious, it leads to the fight. A prime example romanticism in music was the work of the legendary Italian virtuoso violinist Niccolò Paganini (1782-1840). Both he and his violin concertos have remained in the history of art as a living expression of social and aesthetic protest. It is no coincidence that the church even cursed Paganini and forbade, as once Voltaire, to be buried in consecrated ground. Paganini's talent seemed to people something akin to a curse.
Illustration - N. Paganini "Caprice No. 24"
The appeal to the inner world of a person, characteristic of romanticism, was expressed in a craving for emotionally intense, which determined the primacy of music and lyrics. Romantics surpassed all their predecessors in the value of the lyrical beginning in music, in strength and perfection in conveying the depths of the inner world of a person, emotions, the subtlest shades of mood. And here the expressive possibilities of the piano turned out to be very useful.
When the piano first made itself known, the Rococo era reigned in Europe - a period of transition from baroque to classicism.
During the Romantic era, the piano was a popular home music instrument. This is the heyday of the piano miniature genres. Among them are new genres - nocturne, impromptu, "musical moment", "song without words". Works for piano four hands, when up to twenty sounds were simultaneously extracted from the piano, giving rise to new colors, also became very popular during this period.
The rise in popularity of the piano has led to the emergence of virtuoso pianists.
One of the greatest Romantic composers and at the same time a virtuoso pianist was Frederic Chopin (1810-1849). He interpreted many genres in a new way: he revived the prelude on a romantic basis, created a piano ballad, poeticized and dramatized dances - mazurka, polonaise, waltz; turned the scherzo into an independent work. Enriched harmony and piano texture; combined classic form with melodic richness and fantasy. “Chopin is a bard, rhapsodist, spirit, soul of the piano” (A. Rubinshtein).
In the field of piano music, the importance of Robert Schumann (1810-1856) is also great. In "Carnival" - a cycle of program piano pieces - he showed himself as Great master sharp and accurate musical and psychological characteristics (plays - “portraits” of Chopin, Paganini, pianist Clara Wieck, Schumann himself in the images of Florestan and Euzebius). Many of Schumann's piano pieces are inspired by the literary works of Hoffmann and Jean-Paul Richter ("Kreisleriana", "Butterflies").
Schumann created many songs to the words of Heine, Chamisso, Eichendorff, Burns. His best vocal work is the cycle on Heine's words “The Poet's Love”, which conveys the subtlest shades of feeling from light lyrics to tragic pathos.
Illustration - R. Schumann "Paganini" (from the cycle "Carnival")
Among other equally famous romantic composers is Carl Maria Weber (1786-1826), the founder of the German romantic opera, who actively fought for national German art. One of his most striking operas is The Free Gunner (1820). The plot of the opera was based on an old, widespread legend in Germany and the Czech Republic about a young man who made a pact with the devil. The enchanted bullets received from the "black hunter" bring the young man victory in the shooting competition, but the last bullet mortally wounds his bride. The libretto of the opera, written by F. Kind, differs from its original source in a happy ending: in the clash of good and evil, the forces of light win. The hunter Kaspar, who sold his soul to the devil, is connected with the world of gloomy, sinister fantasy. Max, Agatha's fiancé, is marked by typically romantic traits of psychological duality: the influence of Caspar, behind whom the forces of hell stand, is opposed by the charm of the spiritual purity of the loving Agatha. The action takes place against the backdrop of everyday scenes, with which fantastic episodes contrast. The premiere, which took place in Berlin on June 18, 1821, was an exceptional success - the opera was hailed not only as an outstanding artistic phenomenon, but also as a work of great patriotic significance.
Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy (1809-1847) was not only a talented composer, but also one of the progressive musical and public figures: he founded the first German conservatory and directed the concert organization in Leipzig. Mendelssohn brightly distinguished himself in the field of music for the theater (“A Midsummer Night's Dream”) and program symphony (“Scottish” and “Italian” symphonies, overture “Fingal's Cave”). Images of nature and fantasy folk tales were especially loved by Mendelssohn. By embodying them, he enriched his orchestral style with light and transparent musical colors. His lyrical “Songs without Words” for piano gained wide popularity.
Illustration - F. Mendelssohn-Bartholdy "Song without words"
VI. Conclusion.
Romanticism is an ideological and artistic movement that arose in European countries at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries and reflected in various fields of science and art. Particular attention to the spiritual world, human psychology entailed the development of literature (fantastic story, lyrical epic poem, ballad, historical novel, romantic fairy tale) and music (romance song, piano miniature, strengthening of the psychological principle in the symphony and chamber music). Interest in folk life, national culture, historical past, passion folk tales and songs, love for nature caused the flourishing of folk-everyday, fantastic, romantic-heroic opera, the development of program music, the genres of ballads, songs, and dances.
Romanticism left a whole era in the world artistic culture. Its representatives in literature are Walter Scott, George Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley, Victor Hugo, Adam Mickiewicz; in music - Franz Schubert, Richard Wagner, Hector Berlioz, Niccolò Paganini, Franz Liszt, Fryderyk Chopin, Robert Schumann, Felix Mendelssohn, Edvard Grieg, Vincenzo Bellini, Gaetano Donizetti, Giacomo Meyerbeer; in the visual arts - Eugene Delacroix, Theodore Gericault, Philip Otto Runge, John Constable, William Turner, Orest Kiprensky and others.
In the era of romanticism, many sciences also flourished: sociology, history, political science, chemistry, biology, evolutionary doctrine, and philosophy.
In the 1840s, romanticism gradually fades into the background and gives way to realism. But the traditions of romanticism remind of themselves throughout the 19th century.
IN late XIX At the beginning of the 20th century, the so-called neo-romanticism appeared. This direction is closely connected with the romantic tradition, first of all, with the general principles of poetics - the denial of the ordinary and the prosaic, the appeal to the irrational, "supersensual", a penchant for the grotesque and fantasy.
References
- Architecture: Romanticism / Encyclopedia of Art // http://www.artprojekt.ru/Architecture/style/romanticism.htm
- Boiprav A. Abstract: Romanticism as a trend in art. / Vestreferat.Ru // http://www.bestreferat.ru/referat-43989.html
- Buryakov D. Franz Liszt // http://cl.mmv.ru/composers/List.htm
- European art era of romanticism. / All-Belarusian collection of term papers. / Digital library research work. // http://kursach.com/refer/evropiskus.htm
- Genre features of the European literary tale of the era of romanticism / Independent projects on “Ruthenia” // http://annalyst.nm.ru/Skazka.htm
- Historical epochs in music. / Archive of classical music. // http://writerstob.narod.ru/techen/romantizm.htm
- Yarovikova N. Romanticism / Encyclopedia “Round the World” // http://www.krugosvet.ru/articles/109/1010910/1010910a1.htm
- 100 operas // http://100oper.nm.ru/012.html
