The oldest stage in the development of geography. Stages of development of geographical science

(according to A.G. Isachenko)

Geography is undoubtedly one of the most ancient sciences. The history of its development has at least six millennia. According to A.I. Isachenko, the path that modern geography has traveled can be schematically represented as a successive change of four main stages: elucidation of the general properties of our planet and the main external features its surface Þ the study of individual elements of its nature Þ the establishment of mutual relationships between individual elements of nature Þ the study of geographical complexes (geosystems).

These stages are not separated from each other by sharp time lines; between them there are many "overlays" and "overlays". At the same time, there were several key, epoch-making events in the development of geography that quite clearly separate these periods.

The first frontier for geography was the Great Geographical Discoveries, the beginning of which is considered to be the day Christopher Columbus discovered America (October 12, 1492). However, the era of the Great Discoveries was preceded by a long period of slow expansion of knowledge about the Earth. The limited and disunity of the spatial outlook - characteristic this era. Even the most cultured peoples of Europe and Asia knew only small parts of the globe.

Theoretical ideas in the field of geography were fragmentary and were strongly influenced by the religious and mythological worldview. The geographical views of antiquity, advanced by that time, were based not so much on experience as on natural-philosophical guesses and were often naive and fantastic. Official scholastic science Christian Middle Ages was also not connected with practice and relied on elements of the same ancient science, but adapted to Catholic teaching (Thomas Aquinas, 1225-1274). This entire long epoch is divided into two segments corresponding to the ancient and middle ages of world history.

The great geographical discoveries made a revolution in the spatial outlook of mankind, made it possible to form a general idea of ​​the relationship between continents and oceans. Since that time, there has been a turning point in the medieval worldview and begins Scientific research nature and at the same time the second great epoch in the development of geography.

However, it took more than two centuries after the completion of the Great Geographical Discoveries to clarify and map the outlines of the land, to find out the main features of its orography and hydrography, and then to collect and systematize material on the main components of the earth's surface: climate, waters, organic world etc., sufficient for primary scientific generalization. These tasks determined the nature of geography almost until the end of the 19th century.

There is an important boundary between these two turning points, dating back approximately to the beginning of the last third of the 18th century. Until that time leading role played the measurement and mapping of the Earth. At that time, geography was still, as it were, in the "topographical" stage and explained many phenomena of nature and society from the point of view of ancient natural philosophy.

From the end of the XVIII century. geographers in their conclusions begin to rely on experimental study of the phenomena of nature and society, to develop their own methods of research. At the same time, they put forward the problem of studying the links between individual geographical components, which gives reason to consider this time as the beginning of the next, third major period development of geographical thought. But still it was a period of analytical study of nature. The most important feature development of geography in those years was a constantly deepening differentiation of natural science and scientific geographical knowledge.

The foundation of modern geography was the idea geographical complex, developed in such specific forms as the law of zoning (V.V. Dokuchaev (1846-1903), etc.), the doctrine of the landscape (L.S. Berg (1876-1950), etc.), doctrine of geographical envelope(A.A. Grigoriev (1883-1968) and others). The origin of modern geography dates back to the last third of the 19th century. (126).

MAIN PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT OF GEOGRAPHY

(according to P. James and J. Martin)

In history geographical science, according to American geographers P. James and J. Martin, the following three periods are distinguished:

The first period lasted from ancient times, when geographical thought was born, and up to 1859. This is a classical period during which relatively little attention was paid to the definition and identification of separate branches of science. During this period, knowledge about the world as a whole was not yet so extensive, and each scientist could simultaneously be a specialist and a recognized authority in many sciences. So, for example, almost every one of the ancient Greek philosophers, also known as a historian, could just as well and on the same "legitimate grounds" be considered a geographer. Even in the 18th century, when the separation of individual branches of knowledge had already begun, such scientists as M.V. Lomonosov or Montesquieu, who were not geographers, made a very significant contribution to the history of geographical thought. Alexander Humboldt was the last among such encyclopedists. After his death in 1859, no one has been able to achieve such breadth of knowledge.

A new period began in the second half of the 19th century. It was characterized by the emergence of a professional field of activity called geography, which meant the emergence of professional geographers who, having received the appropriate qualifications, could earn their living doing research in this area.

In Germany new period The development of geography began in 1874, when a department of geography was organized at the University of Berlin, headed by scientists with the rank of professor. Until that time, students had attended a certain course of lectures, and subsequently, perhaps, began to lecture themselves, but never before had entire groups of students specialized in geography. Therefore, when the department of geography appeared in 1874, there was not a single professional geographer among the teachers.

The innovation introduced in Germany was quickly adopted by universities in other countries, primarily France, Great Britain and Russia. It also reached the United States in various ways. Each of these five countries has developed its own national schools and specific ideas about the new geography that have spread around the world. The difference between these schools consisted primarily in how they answered the question about the essence of geography.

The third period in the history of geography, which began in the 50s of the last century, is called modern. Second World War had a huge impact on science. The scientific activity of scientists-geographers in those years was aimed at studying issues related to very difficult problems politicians. In those years, geographers made serious progress in cartography and in the analysis of the significance of location, that is, in those areas that were usually not noticed by representatives of other sciences.

The experience of the war was reflected in the creation of the general theory of systems by Ludwig von Bertalanffy (367), in the development of new methods that made it possible to solve the problems of analyzing many variables, when it is necessary to use probability theory to predict the behavior of a system. Just at this time, electronic computing machines, or computers, came into life. They made it possible to quickly and accurately calculate the parameters of a huge variety of indicators. Then there was a real revolution in data collection methods: electronic devices appeared for scanning the Earth's surface from orbiting space satellites. These innovations, which appeared mainly after the 50s of our century, opened the third period in the history of geographical science.

At present, geographers are approaching the definition of geography without focusing on the issue of its demarcation from other disciplines. new trend is that all sciences make joint efforts to solve individual problems. The process of division (differentiation) has now been replaced by a process of integration, in which scientists from each of the disciplines apply their special knowledge and skills to solve global problems such as uncontrolled population growth, racial relations, environmental degradation, the fight against hunger, etc. Geographical proper includes issues related to the significance of location and spatial (territorial) relationships of objects and phenomena (110,367).

It is necessary to distinguish between the history of travel and territorial discoveries on Earth, the history of development geographical ideas and ideas, thinking (according to N. N. Baransky), the history and evolution of methods and the development of the theory of geography. The result is the formation of a scientific geographical picture of the world, reflected in geographical laws, patterns, and the presence of large geographical schools.

The history of science is a branch of knowledge that collects and analyzes facts, discoveries, theories, and teachings relating to different periods.

The history of geography, according to V. S. Zhekulin (1989), is a branch of geographical science that studies in mutual connection the history of the territorial discovery of the Earth (the history of travel), the history of the development of geographical ideas and the discovery of new geographical laws and patterns. Domestic geographer N. G. Fradkin in the book Geographical discoveries and scientific knowledge Earth (1972) gives a modern definition of this concept. If in the past a geographical discovery meant the first visit to an object (continents, islands, straits, volcanoes, lakes, etc.) by representatives of peoples who had a written language, characterized this object or put it on a map, now geographical discovery should be understood as not only a territorial, but also a theoretical discovery in the field of geography, the establishment of new geographical patterns.

Let us give two examples of geographical discoveries of the mid-twentieth century. In 1948, Soviet high-latitude expeditions discovered the underwater Lomonosov Ridge in the Arctic Ocean, which extends from the Novosibirsk Islands through the central part of the ocean to Ellesmere Island in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago and rises above the bottom by an average of 3000 m.

Another example concerns the establishment of the most important pattern of migration chemical elements in natural landscapes, established in 1961 by A.I. Perelman. The concept of a geochemical barrier was formulated - a section of the earth's crust in which, at a short distance, there is a sharp decrease in the intensity of migration of elements and, as a result, their increased concentration is observed. Barriers are diverse, as are the types of substance migration. There are mechanical, physicochemical, biogenic and technogenic barriers. Here is a striking example of a physicochemical barrier. In the forest zone, under conditions of oxygen deficiency in the soil, iron is usually divalent and easily migrates in solutions. When the waters come to the surface, under conditions of a sufficient amount of oxygen, iron passes into the trivalent form and precipitates, which is marked with brown spots.

Geography is an ancient science. Reliable geographical information has come down to us since the 4th-3rd millennium BC. e. And refer to Babylonia, Egypt, Ancient China. The oldest maps and plans, information about travels have been preserved. Like other sciences, geography has gone through several major stages in its development.

Ancient Mediterranean civilization (according to Yu. G. Saushkin), or geography during the period of the slave system. 4th century BC e.- 5th century n. e. Natural science in ancient times was undifferentiated. Therefore, geographers were simultaneously philosophers, astronomers, and mathematicians. Main achievements: a) speculative idea of ​​the Earth as a ball, and then its scientific proof(Miletian or Ionian philosophical school Thales); b) creating maps and plans, determining geographical coordinates, the introduction into use of parallels and meridians, cartographic projections (K. Ptolemy); c) the introduction of Eratosthenes in the III century. BC e. the term geography and the calculation by Eratosthenes of the size of the Earth; d) the beginnings of the differentiation of geographical sciences: hydrology, meteorology, oceanology (Aristotle); Strabo (1st century BC) - the founder of geomorphology and paleogeography; e) formation of regional studies - 17 volumes of Strabo's Geography; f) the first ameliorative hydrotechnical works as forerunners of the transformative (reclamation) direction in geography.

Middle Ages (until the middle of the 15th century). A significant role in the development of geography was played by the Arab scholars and travelers Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Biruni, Idrisi, and especially Ibn Batuta, who traveled from 1325 to 1349. The great European Traveler was Marco Polo. Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin walked along the Caspian, Black and Arabian seas, reaching the shores of India, describing the nature, life and life of the population of this country.

The era of the great geographical discoveries (XV-XVIIcenturies).

Characterized during the Renaissance by the discovery of H. Columbus of America, the voyage of Vasco da Gama to India and, of course, the first round-the-world trip of F. Magellan. Thus, the idea of ​​the sphericity of the Earth was confirmed experimentally, and the unity of the World Ocean was established. In 1515, the hypothetical Southern Continent was shown on the map of Leonardo da Vinci.

Geographic cartography is characterized by two outstanding events: the compilation of the Mercator map (1512-1594), which shows the real outlines of the continents and their coastlines, and the creation of the Great Drawing Russian state.

The theoretical results of the development of the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries were summed up in the General Geography of B. Varenius (1850), where the subject of geography was defined, its division into general and particular was given, and considerable attention was paid to the ocean.

Geography in Russia XVII-XVIIIcenturies . The most striking events in the geography of this period: a) the intensive movement of Russian explorers to the east (E. P. Khabarov, V. D. Poyarkov, S. I. Dezhnev, V. V. Atlasov and others); b) creation in 1739. M. V. Lomonosov of the Geographical Department; c) the organization, on the initiative of Peter I, of an expedition to study Siberia and the Far East (D. G. Misserschmidt, V. Bering, A. I. Chirikov); d) the first description of Russia by Ivan Kirillov The flourishing state of the Russian state since 1731; e) creation in 1745 by the Academy of Sciences of the Atlas Russian Empire; f) the first scientific system of geographical sciences of V. N. Tatishchev; g) geographical works and activities of M. V. Lomonosov; H) general land surveying of Russia under Catherine II - land use cadastre.

Geography in Western Europe in XVIII-XI10th century The period is characterized by a combination of significant territorial discoveries (D. Cook, D. Livingston, etc.) and the development of theoretical geography by S.I. Kant, K. Ritter, E. Reclus, I. Thunen). An outstanding contribution to geography was made by A. Humboldt, the greatest theoretical geographer and no less famous traveller. Introduced the comparative method in geography. He explored Central and South America, the Urals, Altai, the coast of the Caspian Sea, southwest Siberia. For the first time he compiled a map of isotherms of the Northern Hemisphere, proposed isohypses for displaying on a map of the earth's surface relief. Author of more than 600 works, including a generalizing work on the geography of the five-volume Cosmos.

Geography in Russia XIX- start XX centuries . Russians world travel I. F. Kruzenshtern and Yu. F. Lisyansky, the discovery of Antarctica by F. F. Bellingshausen and M. P. Lazarev. The birth of the first scientific geographical school of the Military Academy of the General Staff, established in 1832. In 1845, the establishment of the Russian Geographical Society in St. Petersburg and the formation of its school (F.P. Litke, P.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky, N.M. Przhevalsky, P. A. Kropotkin, N. N. Miklukho-Maclay, A. I. Voeikov, V. A. Obruchev, P. K. Kozlov, etc.)

In 1884, D. N. Anuchin created the first department of geography at Moscow University (Department of Geography, Anthropology and Ethnography), which served as the basis for the formation of the Anuchinsky geographical school of Moscow University. The creation of the school of geography at St. Petersburg University is associated with the names of V. V. Dokuchaev and A. I. Voeikov.

Among the exceptional achievements of the early twentieth century. it should be noted the American polar traveler R. Peary, who reached the North Pole on April 6, 1909; Norwegian polar explorer R. Amundsen, who reached the South Pole of our planet on December 14, 1911.

Soviet period of development of geography. The period is extremely productive, which had a huge impact on world geographical and even environmental science.

Numerous expeditions continued to study the nature, population and economy of the country, including the development of the Northern sea ​​route, the SP-I expedition of I. D. Papanin, the organization of the Soviet Antarctic expedition (1955), the study of the World Ocean, etc.

In the 70s, on the initiative of K.K. Markov, the geography of the World Ocean began to develop intensively, which resulted in the publication of a seven-volume series devoted to the physical and economic geography ocean.

The cartographic support of science and practice was improved, state topographic and thematic maps were created, the Great Soviet Atlas of the World (1937), the Physical and Geographical Atlas of the World (1964), and a series of regional and specialized atlases were published.

Various geographical schools were formed, including complex general and regional physical geography (the school of A. A. Borzov - L. S. Berg - N. A. Solntsev, the academic school of process science A. A. Grigoriev - I. P. Gerasimov) , geomorphological schools of I.S. Schukina - A.I. Spiridonov and I.P. Gerasimov - Yu. A. Meshcheryakova; landscape-geochemical B.B. Polynova - A.I. Perelman - M.A. Glazovskaya and the economic and geographical school of N.N. Baransky - N.N. Kolosovsky - Yu. G. Saushkin and many others.

The system of geographical sciences developed, its differentiation into branch geographical sciences (for example, permafrost, botanical geography) and integration.

New and latest methods for studying the geographic shell and its components (geochemical, geophysical, cartographic, paleogeographic, mathematical, aerospace) were developed and introduced.

Academic geographical institutes and geographical departments were opened at universities and pedagogical universities. In 1918, the Industrial Geographical from Affairs, which later grew into the Geomorphological Institute (1930), then to the Institute of Physical Geography (1934), and since 1936 the Institute of Geography of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Institutes of geography were created in Siberia (in the city of Irkutsk) and in the Far East (in Vladivostok). Scientific and popular science geographical journals appeared, stable textbooks for higher education and a series of monographs devoted to describing the nature of the USSR were published. All the time, the scientific activity of geographers with the practice of the national economy was clearly traced.

scientific schoolD. N. Anuchin at Moscow University . A scientific school is understood as a group of scientists headed by its leader, founder, united by a single theoretical and methodological approach and common views on the essence of the phenomena being studied, who use similar research methods. The most important feature of the scientific school is continuity from teacher to student. Scientific school is a broad concept. Schools can differ significantly in number, form of unity (around a professor at a university, around a scientific journal, academic laboratory, problematic seminar), in time of existence, in importance and scale of the problems being solved. Many outstanding schools are known to science, for example, academicians P. L. Kapitsa in physics or I. P. Pavlov in physiology.

The school of D. N. Anuchin is described in detail in the textbooks of Yu. G. Saushkin History and Methodology of Geographical Science and V. S. Zhekulin Introduction to Geography.

Scientific school of the Russian Geographical Society. The history of the Russian Geographical Society and its role in the development of geography has been described in sufficient detail in the literature. Traditionally, the anniversaries of the Society were marked by the publication of generalizing publications. So, on his centenary, President Acad. L. S. Berg published the book All-Union Geographical Society for a Hundred Years (1946). In 1970, under the editorship of another president of the Society, acad. SV Kalesnik published a collective monograph Geographical Society for 125 years (1970). For the centenary celebrated in August 1995, a collective monograph was published by the Russian Geographical Society. 150 years, edited by A. G. Isachenko (M., 1995). The scientific school of the Geographical Society is briefly described in the textbook by V. S. Zhekulin Introduction to Geography.

History: 1. The scientific circle-seminar of statisticians and travelers, organized in 1843 by the ethnographer and statistician P. I. Koeppen, is the forerunner of the Geographical Society. Organizational preparation and the special role of K. M. Baer, ​​F. P. Litke and F. P. Wrangel. On August 6 (18), 1845, Nicholas 1 approved the idea of ​​establishing the Russian Geographical Society (from 1850 it became known as the Imperial Society). Prince Konstantin was appointed its chairman. The first meeting of the founders of the Society took place on September 19 (October 1), 1845. Among them are the most famous scientists, travelers, cultural figures - I. F. Kruzenshtern, P. I. Keppen, K. I. Arseniev, V. Ya. I. Dahl, VF Odoevsky, etc. The first de facto leader of the Russian Geographical Society was F. P. Litke. For 41 years (from 1873 to 1914) the society was led by an outstanding geographer, a prominent statesman P.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky.

2. P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky and his contribution to the development of geography. Field expeditionary research in Central Asia. Main works: Geographic and Statistical Dictionary of the Russian Empire (1863-1885), Picturesque Russia, Russia. Complete geographical description of our fatherland (1899-1914), Etudes of the history of Netherlandish painting. Organization of expeditions of the Russian Geographical Society by P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky. Pupils and followers: N. M. Przhevalsky, P. A. Kropotkin, N. A. Severtsov, N. N. Miklukho-Maclay, I. M. Mushketov, M. V. Pevtsov,
V. I. Roborovsky and others.

3. The role of AI Voeikov in the development of geography, climatology, meliorative geography. Research and travel of AI Voeikov in Western Europe, America, Asia, in various regions of Russia. A. I. Voeikov is the author of more than 1700 works in various areas and sections of geography. Climates of the globe, especially Russia (1884), Snow cover, its influence on soil, climate and weather, and research methods (1889), Irrigation of the Transcaspian region from the point of view of geography and climatology (1908), Land improvements and their relationship with climate and other natural conditions (1910), etc.

4. Regional expeditionary research carried out under the auspices of the Russian Geographical Society.

5. Prominent figures of the Geographical Society of the 20th century: N. I. Vavilov, L. S. Berg, E. N. Pavlovsky, S. V. Kalesnik, A. F. Treshnikov and others.

Foreign geography in the twentieth century. has come a difficult way from the classical task of describing the earth's surface to the search for those laws that could form new item research. At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. there was a threat of turning geography into a compilation of loosely connected information about the Earth, collected by representatives of private sciences studying the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, pedosphere, society, etc. However, the gradual awareness of geographers of different specialties since the 19th century. its unity was manifested in the formation of professional organizations: geographical societies different countries(the first - in 1821 in France), the holding of International Geographical Congresses since 1871, the creation in 1922 of the International Geographical Union. The chorological concept of the German scientist L. Gettner, who saw the task of geography in identifying terrestrial spaces by their differences and spatial relationships, had a great unifying influence on the development of geography. The horological concept was developed in the USA in the works of R. Hartshorne, who saw the purpose of geography in the study of the territorial differentiation of the earth's surface and the allocation of individual regions. On this theoretical basis, in the first half of the century in Great Britain, the United States of America, and Australia, work on zoning the territory, including for the needs of agriculture, was widely developed (L. Herbertson, D. Whittlesey, D. Stemp, K. Christian). An important role was played by the idea of ​​the interaction of natural components and the interaction of man with the environment in small areas. The focus is on the spatial morphology of phenomena, the development of mapping and zoning methods, as well as intercomponent relationships, and analysis of the factors of the genesis of spatial differentiation. The greatest contribution to the development of these problems was made in Germany by Z. Passarge, E. Banse, A. Penk, O. Schlüter, K. Troll, J. Schmithusen, and in the SSL by K. Sauer and I. Bowman. A powerful school of regional geography has developed in France, which has set as its goal the compilation of complex descriptions of regions (P. Vidal de la Blache, A. Demangeon, E. Martonne, J. Beaughe-Garnier).

A large place in the history of foreign geography is occupied by two concepts that explain the dependence of social phenomena on natural features. Geographical determinism, popular in English-speaking geography at the beginning of the century, directly derives historical and economic processes from natural conditions (E. Semple, E. Huntington). Possibilism, which was formed in France, claims that a person chooses the type of nature management from several alternative ones that best suits the opportunities provided by natural conditions.

Under the influence of the works of C. Darwin, the ideas of development and evolution penetrated geography, primarily within the framework of geomorphology through the efforts of W. Davis, who created the doctrine of the cycles of relief development. In biogeography, the idea of ​​change in time began to be taken into account after the work of F. Clements on changes in vegetation cover. Schools of historical geography were formed in the USA (K. Sauer) and Great Britain (H. Darby). K. Sauer laid the foundations of human ecology and saw the basis for the unity of geographical science in the study of the interaction between nature and man. The main task of geography, in his opinion, is to study the process of transforming a natural landscape into a cultural one.

Stormy political events 20th century stimulated the development of geopolitical theories, which proceeded from the idea of ​​the state as an organism with the living space it needs (F. Ratzel, R. Kjellen, H. Mackinder).

In the second half of the twentieth century. came new stage theoretical understanding of the experience of applied work, when foreign geographers ceased to satisfy the task of identifying and describing homogeneous territories. A search began for ways to formalize geographical knowledge, to build a theory that could generalize the laws of the spatial distribution of phenomena over the earth's surface. The main efforts were concentrated in the creation of an apparatus for spatial analysis using mathematical methods, including geometry, and aerospace information. The leaders were Anglo-American geographers, mainly of the socio-economic direction,
F. Schaefer, B. Berry, W. Garrison, P. Haggett, W. Bunge, W. Izard. Many saw this as the unifying beginning of private branches of physical and social geography with such basic concepts as direction (orientation), distance, and interconnection (relative location). The peak of the quantitative revolution came in the 1950s. A theory of central places by V. Kristaller and A. Lesh has developed, which makes it possible to explain the hierarchy and spatial arrangement of settlements. In geomorphology, the work of R. Horton and L. Strahler laid the foundation for the quantitative morphology of river basins. The theory of island biogeography by R. MacArthur and E. Wilson explained the quantitative ratios of the size of isolated habitats and the species richness of wildlife. At the same time, a systematic approach was introduced, which focused on the concepts of feedback between the components of geosystems, hierarchy, self-regulation, stability (R. Chorley, B. Kennedy, R. Hagget, R. Bennett).

If in the first half of the century the thesis about the need to study the processes that formed the natural and economic regions (S. Woolridge) was often disputed within the framework of geography, then in the postwar period the study of the dynamics of various phenomena on the earth's surface became a priority. The achievements of the quantitative revolution have been applied in studies of the processes of relief formation, cycles of matter in the geographic envelope, climate change, the movement of glaciers, and landscape transformation under anthropogenic impact. The work of the Swedish geographer T. Hegerstrand on the diffusion of innovations laid the foundation for the unification of space-time studies. In the 1970s and 1980s, the study of the problem of the hierarchy of processes in time and spatial objects came to the fore. Within the framework of social geography, behavioral geography (behaviorism) is gaining ground, explaining the connections between personal perception of the surrounding world and the spatial behavior of people (D. Wolpert, K. Cox, R. Golledzh). Since the 90s, studies on the perception and aesthetics of the landscape have been popular, especially in France (J. Bertrand, A. Decamps).

At the turn of the 1960s and 1970s, the ecologization of geographic research was sharply outlined; many geographers see human ecology as one of the main subjects of study (D. Stoddart, A. Gowdy, G. Haase, I. Simmonet, F. Heer). Ecologization was especially pronounced in climatology, which developed models of global climate change and the transport of pollutants in the atmosphere. The volume of studies of natural disasters and their comparison with socio-economic reality has grown (G. White, R. Chorley, D. Parker).

The powerful apparatus of spatial analysis developed in geography attracted the attention of ecologists, who applied geographic methods to the study of populations. In the 1970s and 1980s, landscape ecology was formed, within which ecologists - natives of biology and geographers - successfully cooperated. This branch of science, closest to Russian landscape science, is designed to answer the main question, which natural processes form certain spatial structures and how spatial structures are reflected in the state of wildlife. Geographical methods of spatial analysis made it possible to take into account in ecological studies the factors of space properties (size, shape, distance, proximity of ecosystems) and factors of the scale level of manifestation of interactions of living organisms with the abiotic environment. The development of landscape ecology was stimulated by a powerful flow of remote information about the spatial distribution and configuration of ecosystems, the spread of statistical methods that became familiar to geographers in Europe and North America during the quantitative revolution, and the development of geoinformation technologies. Awareness in the 70s of the onset of global and regional environmental issues required the development of the concept of nature management, nature protection, which was proposed by landscape ecology. Authoritative centers of landscape-ecological research have developed in the Netherlands (I. Zonneveld, R. Jongman, P. Opdam), Slovakia (M. Ruzicka, L. Miklos), Great Britain (R. . Ise), Denmark
(E. Brandt), France (M. Gaudron, A. Decamps), USA (R. O "Neill, R. Foreman, J. Wu,
M. Turner, R. Gardner, D. Wins), Poland (E. Solon, L. Ryzhkovsky, A. Richling), Germany
(H. Leser, Father Bastian), Israel (3. Naveh), Australia (R. Hobbs), Norway (Fry). Since 1982 there has been the International Association of Landscape Ecology (IALE).

Significant progress has been made in the design of networks of protected natural areas, taking into account the interaction of all components of the landscape and the spatial structure of the territory. Since the 1980s, environmental policy in Europe has been based on a landscape-ecological approach. The creation of ecological networks and green corridors using landscape ecology methods allows for the spatial conjugation of undisturbed habitats and plays a key role in biodiversity conservation. The key concepts used by landscape ecology in the design of green networks are defined - the sensitivity of organisms to the configuration of habitats, connectivity and fragmentation of habitats, edge effects, ecotones, landscape permeability for migration, the relationship of landscape and biological diversity with the sustainability of ecosystems.

Main applied value landscape ecology is land-use planning and, more broadly, landscape planning. Among the topical issues addressed by landscape planning are how to enter land use types into the spatial structure of the landscape, how to take into account the conflicting interests of land users, what factors and processes determine the development of the landscape, in what ways they can be regulated, what are the consequences of anthropogenic impact in different types of landscape, how to preserve cultural landscapes.

The main theoretical problem of landscape ecology at the turn of the XX-XXI centuries. - the problem of identifying the hierarchy and determining the rational scale of the study of landscape processes. Landscape research is inevitably multi-scale, since landscape processes manifest themselves at different spatial and temporal scales. The problem is generated by the contradiction between the regional scale of nature management and the local scale of data collection, which greatly hinders the understanding and resolution of global problems.

14. The main stages of accumulation of knowledge about the Earth, its nature and population.

Geography is one of the first sciences that had to create people. After all, hunters and gatherers had to find out exactly where it was better to hunt near their homes, where to collect edible plants, where to hide from predators. Studying the history of the Ancient World, we got acquainted with the life of the population of Dr. Egypt. Egypt is the "child of the Nile", the whole life of its inhabitants is connected with this river. To zap. and to the east. from it - a lifeless desert. Gradually, people's ideas about the world expanded. Residents of Dr. Greece knew the sea much better. They sailed on rowing and sailing ships not only along the coast, but also in the open sea, they could already navigate - during the day by the Sun, and at night by the Polar Star. The Greeks founded many colonies along the shores of the Mediterranean, as well as the Black and Seas of Azov, including on the territory of the modern. Russia.

Only two centuries later (in the 4th century BC), the great scientist of the ancient world, Aristotle, came to the conclusion that the Earth is spherical. The ancient Greek scientist Erastofen (III-II centuries BC) first used the term "geography", managed to accurately calculate the size of the Earth and make one of the first maps. Ptolemy (I-II centuries) compiled a much more perfect map of the world.

In the Middle Ages, the general level of knowledge initially declined sharply. Scientific knowledge about the world began to be replaced by myths about the "firmament", to which the stars are "nailed", about the "earthly paradise", which is located east of Jerusalem, about people with dog heads.

The leading role in geographical discoveries passed to the Arabs, who invented the compass, navigational instruments, and sea charts. The merchant Afanasy Nikitin traveled to India and compiled a description of the countries he saw.

Marco Polo traveled through Asia, visited Iran, China, Mongolia, India, Indonesia and described everything in the famous "Book of the Diversity of the World".

The great geographical discoveries - a period in the history of mankind that began in the 15th century and lasted until the 17th century, during which Europeans discovered new lands and sea routes to Africa, America, Asia and Oceania in search of new trading partners and sources of goods that were in great demand in Europe.

At that time, GEOGRAPHY performed mainly the function of LAND DESCRIPTION, answered the questions: WHAT? WHERE? Geographical writings, maps and descriptions of that time served mainly as reference books. Christopher Columbus, in search of a new western route to India, discovered a new part of the world, later called America in 1492. The known world expanded dramatically. For Europeans, the Old World and the New World appeared. Not finding Indian treasures on the shores of the New World, the Spaniards did not calm down. And then Ferdinand Magellan proposed to go around the American mainland from the south. And from 1519 - 1521. Magellan made the first circumnavigation proving the sphericity of the earth.

By the beginning of the XVII century. Europe, Asia, Africa, North and South Am were known to Europeans. In Russia, the development of Siberia began after the campaign of Yermak (1581-1584). In 1639 Ivan Moskvitin went to the Pacific Ocean, and in 1648 Semyon Dezhnev passed through the strait between Asia and Am. But even ancient scientists believed that in the south there is a huge mainland - "Unknown Southern Land". In her search, the Dutch discovered at the beginning of the 17th century. coast of Australia, and in 1644 Abel Tasman proved that this is a separate mainland. The famous English navigator James Cook - the leader of 3 round-the-world expeditions - repeatedly crossed the Arctic Circle south of Australia, but stopped in front of insurmountable sea and ice fields and did not find the mainland. Only in 1820, the Russian expedition on the ships "Vostok" and "Mirny" under the command of F.F. Bellingshausen and M.P. Lazarev discovered the last continent on earth - Antarctica.

TO late XIX V. almost all lands were open. The study of the interior regions of the continents, as well as the polar regions of the Earth, continued. The Norwegian Roald Amundsen decided to reach the North Pole, but in 1909 he was outstripped by the American Robert Peary. Amundsen got his revenge in 1911 when he raised the Norwegian flag at the South Pole.

In 1648, Semyon Dezhnev and Fedot circled the mainland from the northeast and reached the shores of the Pacific Ocean, proving the absence of a connection between Asia and North America. Subsequently, it was called the Bering Strait.

V.V. Atlasov made (1697-1699) a trip to Kamchatka, compiled a detailed description of the peninsula, its population and way of life.

The Great Northern Expedition of 1733-1743 is the largest exploratory expedition in the history of mankind. The sea and land detachments of this expedition explored and mapped the northern and northeastern shores of Eurasia, reached the northwestern shores of North America, discovered a number of islands off the coast of Alaska. As a result of the activities of Russian navigators and explorers during the Great Northern Expedition, the possessions of the Russian Empire spread into three parts of the world: Europe, Asia and America.

18th - 19th - early 20th centuries The most important stage accumulation of knowledge about the Earth

Numerous expeditions of the 18th - 19th and early 20th centuries enriched geography with knowledge about the nature and population of the Earth. During this era, the polar regions of our planet were discovered and explored.

Alexander Humboldt the Second Columbus" he was nicknamed for the 30-volume work "Journey through the tropical regions of the New World", in which he outlined the results of his 5-year expedition to America.

David Livingstone Explorer of Central and Southern Africa

Pyotr Petrovich Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky1856 - 1857 First visited and mapped this huge, unknown to science the mountain system of Central Asia, which before him remained a “blank spot”.

Nikolai Mikhailovich Przhevalsky

The first European explorer of the interior regions of Central Asia. He explored the hard-to-reach regions of Mongolia, China and Tibet, passed through the endless Mongolian steppes, crossed the Gobi, Alashan, Takla-Makan deserts, the Ordos plateau and the northern outskirts of high-mountainous Tibet; explored the upper reaches of the Huang He, Yangtze and Tarim rivers, the lakes of Central Asia; discovered hitherto unknown mountain ranges in the Nanshan and Kunlun systems ... His travels brought world fame to Russian geographical science.

So geography moved from the accumulation of traditional reference material to the creation of complex descriptions of countries and individual territories. The first theories arose about the structure of the atmosphere, the movement of VMs, the doctrine of the origin of the land relief and its development under the influence of internal and external forces. Geographers put forward the idea of ​​the unity and integrity of the entire nature of the Earth.

The study of the Arctic, Antarctica and the World Ocean in the XX century. Regular research in Antarctica has been carried out since 1956. Various countries of the world have equipped research stations on the mainland and adjacent islands. In connection with the study of Antarctica, an international agreement was signed, according to which any economic activity and the deployment of military bases are prohibited on this mainland. Therefore, Antarctica is called the mainland of scientists.

Almost until the beginning of the 20th century, mankind had little idea of ​​the oceans. The focus was on continents and islands. It was they that were revealed to the gaze of travelers in the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries and at a later time. About the ocean during this time it became known basically only that it is almost three times larger than all land. Under the surface of the water there was a huge unknown world.

An oceanographic expedition in 1872-1876 discovered that the ocean floor has a very complex relief, that life exists in the depths of the ocean, despite the darkness and cold prevailing here. During the First World War, the study of the great depths of the ocean became possible thanks to the use of an echo sounder .. In the 40s of our century, scuba gear was invented. In the study of great depths, such underwater vehicles as bathyscaphes and bathyspheres are used.

In recent years, to study the oceans at the bottom, at a depth of 10-20 meters, underwater laboratories have been established, and submarines have been equipped with scientific equipment. Special ships, airplanes, Earth satellites participate in MO research, photographing and filming are carried out. When studying vast areas of the ocean, scientists from different countries join their efforts.

The results of the study of the expanses of the seas and oceans have great importance for fishing, navigation, prospecting and mining.

Modern research..

After the aircraft appeared, aerial reconnaissance arose. Continuous observation of the Earth's surface became possible with the creation of artificial Earth satellites - spacecraft that constantly revolve around our planet.

Satellites collect a huge amount of information. They take pictures of the Earth, observe the weather, provide communication between countries and continents. On the basis of satellite images are geogr. maps, conduct a variety of studies ter-ii.

International Earth Exploration. With its huge success in modern times geography owes international cooperation. This is especially true for the study of the World Ocean, Antarctica, and space. So, in 1957-1958, scientists from all over the world joined forces in studying the Earth and near-Earth space. This year is called the International Geophysical Year. During this period, the Soviet Union launched the first artificial Earth satellite, and research geophysical rockets appeared in the USA, Australia, Canada, France, and Japan. With the appearance of signs of pollution of the Earth, the joint efforts of scientists becomes even more necessary. Together, geographers from different countries continue to explore the Earth.

The methodology of teaching geography uses methods by sources of knowledge, since it is impossible to imagine the study of the basics of geography outside of activities with sources of geographic information. Traditional sources geog. inf. – geog. maps and atlases. They are marked with what people have discovered on Earth over the centuries. And also these are encyclopedias and reference books, books, magazines, guides, Internet networks, aerospace images.

When working with a textbook, the basis of the ct is the tex, the student is trained in the mental operations of analysis and synthesis. The development and improvement of the operations of analysis and synthesis is largely facilitated by working with the text of the textbook. There are 3 levels of working with text:

Cognitive (main goal - assimilation); analytical (criticism); creative (creation of something new). For students, knowing is the most acceptable. level, including the most common methods of working with a book: A) highlighting the essential; b) semantic grouping; c) drawing up a plan, theses, abstract; d) drawing up diagrams, graphs, diagrams; e) formulation of conclusions; e) reading search.

The map is considered as an object of study and as a source of knowledge. Working with maps involves: a) studying the types and types of maps, atlases, aerial and space images; b) mastering the language of the map; c) the ability to work with maps (reading, comparison, analysis, etc.). A map is a necessary source of knowledge, and the ability to work with a map: read it, analyze it, compare maps of various contents, create models of new maps - is one of the main geography skills that students must master in the process of providing geography.

Visual aids include pictures, diagrams, tables, drawings, graphs, diagrams, etc. With the help of pictures, the teacher teaches students to highlight the main and secondary, to see the characteristics of the details of the object or phenomenon under consideration. Basic requirements for working with visual teaching aids: 1) work with visual aids should be combined with the use of a textbook and a map; 2) to provide for a different nature of cognitive activity of students, not only reproductive, but also creative; 3) be applied at various stages of learning: when studying new material, consolidating and generalizing it; 4) to stimulate the cognitive interest of the student. Possibilities of a personal approach to learning in the organization of educational knowledge on this topic?.

The Age of DiscoveryThe period from the middle of the 15th century to the middle of the 17th century, marked by the largest
geographical discoveries made European travelers, accepted
call the AGE OF GREAT GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES.
Great geographical discoveries went in 3 directions:
By the southern route - around Africa;
Western - through Atlantic Ocean;
Northern water - along the northern outskirts of Eurasia and North America, land through North Asia.
In the era of GREAT GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES
geography has become one of the most important for mankind
Sciences. She was enriched with extensive information about the device
surface of the Earth, has collected a lot of data on nature and
the population of almost the entire land, received new ideas about
nature of the oceans.
At that time, GEOGRAPHY performed mainly the function of LAND DESCRIPTION, answered
to the questions: WHAT? WHERE? Geographical writings, maps and descriptions of that time
served primarily as reference books.
Aivazovsky I.K. "Shipwreck"

4th stage of accumulation of knowledge about the Earth:

second half
XVII XVIII century
Aivazovsky I.K. “Ice Mountains” 1870

Scientific expeditions

In the second half of the 17th century and XVIII centuries travelers continued
search for new sea passages around the metrics, new lands in the oceans,
explored the inner parts of the continents unknown to science. In that
period, SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITIONS are organized for the first time, the purpose of which,
along with discoveries - research, explanation of the causes of geographical
phenomena and processes, features of the nature of individual territories. Tasks
land surveys were gradually replaced by research tasks.
Aivazovsky I.K. "Sea. Moonlit Night” 1878

Great Northern Expedition

Historical voyage of Fedot Popov and Semyon
Dezhnev in 1648 completed the discovery by the Russians
coast of the Arctic Ocean from
White Sea to Chukotka. After this expedition
the strait was supposed to appear on the maps,
connecting two oceans: the Arctic and the Pacific.
However, they did not believe in its existence.
everyone, including the first persons of the Russian
states.
Too many obvious and hidden contradictions
contained in petitions and reports,
compiled by not very literate and
insufficiently experienced in geographical
wisdom by Russian pioneers
XVI-XVII centuries .. Their "tales" were considered fictions,
legends. Even the emperor PETER himself
GREAT did not fully imagine
true dimensions and boundaries of their own
possessions in the north and east of the giant
powers. That's why a few months before
his death, he ordered to equip
special expedition, which was called
answer the "eternal" question:

Great Northern Expedition

“WHERE DID THIS LAND MEET AMERICA?”
And in January 1725 the vanguard of the expedition,
which began to be called the First Kamchatka,
set off on the road, “the most distant and difficult and
never been before.” expedition
led by the captain of the first rank of the Russian
fleet Vitus Bering (1681 - 1741).
The boat of Peter I is the grandfather of the Russian fleet.
Ship of Peter I.

Great Northern Expedition

The Great Northern Expedition is one of the largest Russian
expeditions (1733-1743), the draft of which was developed by the Senate
together with the Admiralty Board at the St. Petersburg Academy
Sciences, several thousand people participated in it. Essentially, she
united several expeditions that completed a huge
complex of studies northern territory Siberia - from the mouth
Pechora and Vaigach Islands to Chukotka, Commander Islands and
Kamchatka. For the first time were mapped on the coast of the Northern
the Arctic Ocean from Arkhangelsk to the mouth of the Kolyma,
coast of Honshu island, Kuril Islands.
This name “Great Northern” accurately characterizes it,
because more grand geographical enterprise
before it was not. (read the book by B.G. Ostrovsky)
Petersburg Academy of Sciences.

Great Northern Expedition

Grave of Vitus Bering
Commander Islands.
And it all started with the decree of Peter the Great, which decreed before the Kamchatka expedition of Vitus
Bering to find out, "... did America agree with Asia ... and put everything on the map properly." Was
a map of the western coast of the peninsula and 16 Kuril Islands was drawn up, but to the question of
there was no answer to the existence of a strait between Asia and America. Then the Senate established a new
Kamchatka expedition. “This expedition is the most distant and difficult and never before
unprecedented that they go to such unknown places,” the Decree of the Senate said.
The purpose of the northern detachments of this expedition was to describe the shores of the Arctic
ocean from the mouth of the Northern Dvina to the Chukchi Sea and checking the possibility of sailing along
coast of Siberia.

Great Northern Expedition

The voyage of V.I. Bering and A.I. Chirikov led to the discovery of part of the coastal regions
Northwest America, adjacent islands, parts of the Aleutian Islands and islands
Bering. From Kamchatka to the detachment of M. Shpanberg and V. Walton sailed to Japan and mapped
Kurile Islands.
The expedition also included the Academic Detachment, the purpose of which was to study
interior regions of Siberia and Kamchatka. Published summary maps of the expedition for the first time
gave a plausible outline of North Asia, part of the coast of Northwest America,
Kuril, parts of the Aleutian and other Pacific Islands.
The most important routes of the Great Northern Expedition 1734-1742.
SWIMMING:
S. Muraviev and M. Pavlov 1734
S. Malygin and A. Skuratov 1736-1737
Dmitry Ovtsyn 1734, 1735, 1736-1737
Fyodor Minin 1738, 1739, 1740
Vasily Pronchishchev 1735-1736
Khariton Laptev and Semyon Chelyuskin 1739-1742
P.Lasinius and Dmitry Laptev 1735-1739
LAND ROUTES:
Semyon Chelyuskin, Khariton Laptev, Nikifor Chekin 1740-1742
Dmitry Laptev 1741-1742

10. Great Northern Expedition

Insert a nice clear snippet of the NER part of Russia
Icebreaker Vasily Pronchishchev
The Great Northern Expedition is the largest research
expedition in human history. Sea and land units
this expedition explored and mapped the northern and northeastern shores of Eurasia, reached the northwestern shores
North America, discovered a number of islands off the coast of Alaska.
As a result of the activities of Russian navigators and explorers
during the Great Northern Expedition of possession of the Russian Empire
spread to three parts of the world: Europe, Asia and America.
"Chelyuskin" in the ice.

11. Great Northern Expedition

Semyon Chelyuskin
Cape Chelyuskin extreme
north point
Eurasia
Ship
"Chelyuskin"
in ice.

12. Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov

Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov (1711 - 1765) shortly before
death, in 1763, uttered prophetic words:
“Russian power will grow in Siberia
and the Northern Ocean. The most “intelligent eyes” of Russia XVIII
centuries saw in nature a lot of things that turned out to be
not available to others. Whatever Lomonosov undertook, he always
was ahead of his time.
M.V. Lomonosov did not make a single trip to
unknown countries. And yet it is rightfully considered one
of the founders of Russian geography.
In the 18th century, a lot of things were truly done in Russia.
great geographical discoveries.
In order to map the explored areas, in 1739, at the Academy of Sciences, a
Geographic Department, whose works six years later published the Atlas
Russian". This became an important event in the history of not only Russian, but also world
geography.
Having studied and summarized the works of the Great Northern Expedition, the great Russian scientist
M.V. Lomonosov in the 60s of the XVIII century developed a project “the passage of the Siberian Ocean into
East India." In one of his odes, he wrote: Russian Columbuses, despising gloomy rock,
Between the ice new way open to the east
And our power will reach America.

13. Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov

Mikhail Vasilyevich was one of the first to understand
how important it is to find and master the Northern
sea ​​route. This would revive the economy of the North and
Siberia, turned the country into a great maritime power.
Lomonosov's contribution to the future development of the Northern
sea ​​route on modern maps is marked by the named
his name by an underwater ridge that rises from
floor of the Arctic Ocean. Around this place
in the center of the Arctic Basin, Lomonosov assumed
the existence of a group of islands that change
directions of sea currents.
When in April 1760 the Swedish Academy of Sciences elected
M.V. Lomonosov as an Honorary Member, he, together with
sent a letter of thanks to Sweden
“A Discourse on the Origin of Ice Mountains in
northern seas. It was the first to describe and
classified polar ice; explained that
floating "ice mountains" (icebergs) come from
glaciers descending into the sea; provides information
about the tides in the northern seas. The scientist even tries
estimate the mass of ice in various parts at all
the then unexplored Arctic Ocean.

14. Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov

Lomonosov was the first in Russia to study the upper layers
atmosphere. He foresaw that the time would come when
using various instruments to predict
weather: then “there will be no heat, no rain dangerous in the field”, but
the ships will "float the sea comfortably and calmly."
In the work “On the layers of the earth” Lomonosov was one of the first
expressed the idea of ​​changing the climate of our planet in
the process of its development. He associated climate change with
astronomical reasons - tilt fluctuations
polar axis and plane of the Earth's orbit.
Lomonosov owns such words about the role
geographical science in the life of society: “What
safer than the floating sea that travels on
different states need it more, how to know the situation
places, the flow of rivers, the distance of hail, the magnitude,
abundance and neighborhood of different lands, customs,
custom and government different peoples? This
GEOGRAPHY shows clearly.

15. “RUSSIAN COLUMBUS” Grigory Ivanovich Shelekhov

Shelekhov Bay
Grigory Ivanovich Shelekhov (1747 - 1795), a native of the city of Rylsk, Kursk region.
The navigator, the first of the Russian merchants, realized the need to create large,
economically strong companies that could discover new lands.
Under his leadership, an expedition was made to the shores of Alaska, as told by
Shelekhov in his "Wanderings from Okhotsk to American Shores".

16. James Cook famous English navigator (1728 - 1779)

Great contribution to
development of geography
made the expedition
famous English
navigator James
Cook, whose name is worth
in line with
H. Columbus and
F. Magellan.
Three voyages were made by J. Cook in
then unknown areas of the Pacific Ocean,
discovered the eastern shores of Australia, New
zealand, New Guinea and a number of others
islands. He explored both the polar and
polar regions of the Earth, passed through
Bering Strait to the Arctic
ocean. The ships of J. Cook reached the South
Arctic Circle, but ice and fog are not
allowed the sailor to enter
further south.

17. XVIII - XIX - early XX centuries. The most important stage in the accumulation of knowledge about the Earth

18th 19th early 20th centuries
The most important stage in the accumulation of knowledge about the Earth
Numerous expeditions of the 18th - 19th and early 20th centuries enriched the geography
knowledge about the nature and population of the Earth. During this era, they discovered and explored
polar regions of our planet.
Names
travelers
of this era:
years
travel:
Ivan Fedorovich
1803 -1806
Kruzenshtern and Yuri
Fedorovich
Lisyansky

development of knowledge about the Earth:
The first Russian round-the-world expedition.
Description of the journey were outlined
Kruzenshtern I.F. In a 3 volume work
“Journey around the world in 1803 - 1806.
On the ships "Nadezhda" and "Neva". TO
the description is accompanied by an atlas of 104 maps and
drawings; compiled an atlas of maps of southern
seas; various
oceanographic observations collected
atmospheric, tide and tide data
World Ocean.

18. Travelers

Names
travelers
of this era:
years
travel:
The contribution of scientists and travelers to
development of knowledge about the Earth:
Vasily Mikhailovich
Golovnin
1817 - 1819
Made the 2nd Russian circumnavigation
the journey described in the book
“A trip around the world on a sloop
"Kamchatka". Named after him: the bay in
Bering Sea, the strait between the islands in
chain of the Kuril Islands, a mountain and a cape on
Novaya Zemlya, a volcano on the island of Kunashir.
Faddey Faddeevich
Bellingshausen and
Mikhail Petrovich
Lazarev
1819 -1821
The first Russian Antarctic expedition.
The result of the expedition was that it
proved the existence of the southern continent of Antarctica, described the nature of its coasts in
a number of points and defined boundaries.
The expedition discovered many islands, made
amendment to Cook's discovery. With my works
she laid the foundation for the study of southern
polar region. Every day despite
difficult meteorological conditions
scientific observations. By geographic
results of the Russian Antarctic
the expedition was the greatest in the 19th century.

19. Travelers

Names
travelers
of this era:
years
travel:
The contribution of scientists and travelers to
development of knowledge about the Earth:
Alexander Humboldt 19th century
(German
naturalist,
theoretical geographer,
traveler)
“Second Columbus” he was nicknamed for the 30-volume work “Journey through tropical
areas of the New World”, in which he outlined
the results of his 5-year expedition to
America. Mountain ranges are named after him
Central Asia and North America, mountain on
island New Caledonia, river, lake, several
settlements in North America, mountain
Humboldt near Humboldt Bay, glacier in
Greenland, mountains in Australia, New Guinea and
New Zealand.
David Livingston
(English
traveler)
Explorer of Central and Southern Africa
David Livingston dedicated his whole life
exploration of this continent. Neither before him nor
after no one did on this continent so
many geographical discoveries.

20. Travelers

Names
travelers
of this era:
years
travel:
Petr Petrovich
1856 - 1857
Semenov-Tyan-Shansky
The contribution of scientists and travelers to
development of knowledge about the Earth:
First visited and mapped this
huge mountain system unknown to science
Central Asia, which remained before him
"white spot". As a result of the
studies, he refuted erroneous views
A. Humboldt and proved that the Tien Shan mountains are not
of volcanic origin, installed them
vertical natural belts, determined height
snow line, drew up a diagram of the orography ...
For almost half a century, Pyotr Petrovich headed
RUSSIAN GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY.
On his initiative, with his support, under his
management conducted extensive research
and created works on geographical
description of Russia, a 5-volume
“Geographical and statistical dictionary
Russian Empire”, which contained
available information about rivers6 lakes, seas,
mountain ranges, cities, towns,
counties, provinces...

21. Travelers

Names
travelers
of this era:
years
travel:
The contribution of scientists and travelers to
development of knowledge about the Earth:
Nikolai Mikhailovich
Przhevalsky
1870 - 1873
1876 - 1877
1879 - 1880
1883 - 1885
The first European explorer of internal
regions of Central Asia. He explored
remote areas of Mongolia, China and Tibet,
passed through the boundless Mongolian steppes, crossed
deserts of Gobi, Alashan, Takla-Makan, Ordos plateau and
the northern outskirts of highland Tibet; explored
upper reaches of the Huang He, Yangtze and Tarim rivers, lakes
Central Asia; discovered hitherto unknown mountain
ridges in the Nanshan and Kunlun systems ... His
travel brought world fame to the Russian
geographical science. By decision of the Russian
Academy of Sciences in his honor was embossed
GOLD MEDAL with the inscription “To the first
explorer of Central Asia.
Nikolai Nikolaevich
Miklukho Maclay
The people of New Guinea called him "Man
from the moon." Years of research on this
Russian scientist and traveler enriched
science with the most valuable ethnographic
information about the indigenous population of the islands
Pacific Ocean, where the scientist spent many years.
The discovery that immortalized his name is
“discovery” by him of man “among the primitive
of people".

22. Travelers

Numerous expeditions of the 18th - 19th and early 20th centuries enriched
geography knowledge about the nature and population of the Earth. During this era there were
discovered and explored the polar regions of our planet.
So geography from accumulation traditionally reference material passed
to the creation of complex descriptions of countries and individual territories.
The first theories arose about the structure of the atmosphere, the movement of air masses,
the doctrine of the origin of land relief and its development under the influence of
internal and external forces. Geographers put forward the idea of ​​unity and
integrity of the entire nature of the Earth.
To be continued….. (see PART 5)
The latest discoveries of the XX century.

Topic 1. The main stages in the development of geography

The study of the content of the paragraph provides an opportunity

Ø supplement ideas about the origins of geographical knowledge;

Ø to study the stages and features of the development of geographical knowledge at each of the historical stages of the development of society;

initial stage in the history of the development of geographical science are the geographical knowledge of primitive peoples. Geographical knowledge they needed in Everyday life, and the direction of knowledge was determined by the nature of the classes. They were associated with the need to find and locate the best pastures, soils, hunting and fishing grounds, and settlement sites. Geographical knowledge was based on intuition, observation, knowledge of natural phenomena and the ability to see their relationships and patterns. Thanks to writing, geographical knowledge of the peoples of ancient civilized countries (Egypt, Mesopotamia, Sumer, Babylon, China) has reached our time. ( Recall what research has been done in these countries?).

Geography of Antiquity. The geography of ancient times covers the VI century. BC e - IV c. e., and it distinguishes the ancient Greek (VI-I centuries BC) and ancient Roman (I-IV centuries AD) periods.

Ancient scientists tried to create a theory about the origin and structure of the surrounding world, to depict the countries known to them in the form of drawings. The results of these searches were the idea of ​​the Earth as a ball, and then its scientific proof; creation of maps and determination of geographical coordinates, introduction of parallels and meridians, cartographic projections.

Summarizing ideas about the Earth and solar system, the Greeks created a system of knowledge called musical-numerical system of the Universe. The name is due to the fact that the sequence of removal of the planets from the Sun and the distance between them was equated to the musical scale. Later appeared geocentric and heliocentric models of the Universe (Remember from the course of history, what are these models of the Universe?).

The main source of geographical information and geographical knowledge for the ancient Greeks was land and sea travel. Description sea ​​voyages the Greeks called the "periples", and the land "perieges". The performers of the perieges were "logographs", who traveled overland and made a description of everything that they observed in nature, but paid special attention to the customs and life of the population.

Of the scientists of this time who contributed to the development of geographical thought, Thales, Aristotle, Eratosthenes, Strabo and Ptolemy should be distinguished ( Remember from the history course when these scientists lived?).

At the beginning of a new era, the geographical knowledge of Greek scientists was systematized by the ancient Greek scientist Strabo. He argued that the surface of the Earth is constantly changing, and the distribution of land and sea is the result of ups and downs of the seabed.

Ancient geography ends with works Claudius Ptolemy. It is known that Ptolemy is the author of the Almagest, a classic astronomical work in which the Earth was proclaimed the center of the Universe. Ptolemy did a lot for the development of cartography. He calculated the coordinates of 8000 geographical points. Created about 30 geographical maps of various areas of the earth's surface.

Thus, already in ancient times, the future began to emerge within geography. regional studies(Strabo), mathematical geography(Eratosthenes, Ptolemy) and some other natural geographical sciences.

Geography of the Middle Ages (VI-XV centuries). During the Middle Ages, under the strong influence of religion, many of the materialistic views of ancient scientists were forgotten or rejected as anti-religious. But, despite the general stagnation in the development of science, culture, education, inherent in the Middle Ages, some geographical discoveries took place at that time. First of all, they were associated with the campaigns and discoveries of new lands by the Scandinavians and the geographical discoveries of scientists from the Arab countries (scientists and travelers Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Biruni, Idrisi, Ibn Batuta). ( Remember from history when and where these scientists lived?).

The Vikings discovered and then founded in the IX-XI centuries. the first settlements in Iceland, Greenland and North America.

Arab scholars in the X century. created the first climate atlas of the world, highlighting 14 climatic zones on the planet and establishing that the climate changes not only in latitudes, but also from west to east.

Arabic medieval geographical literature is diverse. Known are such works of medieval Arab scholars as "The Book of Ways and States", "Wonders of the Countries" or "Wonders of the Earth", as well as geographical sections in historical writings.

During the Middle Ages, a relatively high level of science and culture was maintained in Byzantium. This is explained by the fact that Byzantine scientists were able to adopt and develop many traditions of ancient geographers.

The era of the great geographical discoveries. The most significant discoveries on land and at sea, made in the XV-XVIII centuries, are called Great geographical discoveries. The era of the great geographical discoveries is the flourishing of geography against the backdrop of a general rise (revival) of culture and science. The era of the Great Geographical Discoveries was marked by grandiose achievements, both in the field of territorial discoveries and in the field of scientific theories and research methods.

The search for new lands and routes was carried out on a state scale. The fixation of acquired knowledge, mapping and generalization of the information received has become more important ( What role in the discovery of new lands in this historical period played by F. Magellan, H. Columbus).

When new lands were discovered, a need arose for their cartographic representation and description. This led to the formation scientific cartography. Flemish cartographer Gerhard Mercator(1512-1594) created the first cylindrical conformal projection of the world map, which is still used today and bears the name of Mercator. He also developed a method for using isotherms for climate mapping and hypsometric curve method to characterize the relief, he compiled a collection of maps and descriptions of European countries, which, when published in 1595, was called the Atlas.

Questions and tasks:

1. What determines the main differences between the geography of antiquity and the geography of the Middle Ages?

2. Why do you think Arab countries Geography in the Middle Ages develops especially rapidly?

3. What achievements in other fields of knowledge contributed to the development of geography?

4. * What needs of society did geography satisfy in the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries?