Study of the formation of the historical memory of youth. historical memory

Bulletin of the Chelyabinsk State University. 2015. No. 6 (361). Story. Issue. 63. S. 132-137.

O. O. Dmitrieva

HISTORICAL MEMORY AND MECHANISMS OF ITS FORMATION: ANALYSIS OF HISTORIOGRAPHICAL CONCEPTS IN RUSSIAN SCIENCE

On the basis of studying the studies of domestic scientists, the concept of "historical memory" is analyzed, its forms and classification are distinguished. Such concepts as "historical consciousness", "commemoration", "recommemoration", "image of the past", "places of memory" are considered as mechanisms of formation historical memory. At the same time, "recommemoration" is analyzed as a purposeful process of forgetting certain historical facts. Compared various interpretations the role of historical memory in the design process national identity. The article discusses the scientific views of foreign researchers of memorial subjects (M. Halbvaks, P. Nora, A. Megill), as well as the influence of their concepts on the views of domestic scientists (G. M. Ageeva, V. N. Badmaev, M. A Barg, T. A. Bulygina, T. N. Kozhemyako, N. V. Grishina, I. N. Gorin, V. V. Menshikov, Yu. A. Levada, O. B. Leontieva, V. I. Mazhovnikov , O. V. Morozov, M. V. Sokolova, L. P. Repina).

Keywords: historical memory; historical consciousness; image of the past; commemoration.

At the end of XX - early XXI V. in historical science, much attention is paid to memorial issues, where the focus of research is not on an event and date, but on the formation of historical memory about this event and date. “The interest of domestic historians in the problem of historical memory is explained by the current agenda for modern Russia,” notes O. V. Morozov, “the appeal to historical memory is due to the fact that for more than twenty years Russian society it was not possible to determine moral guidelines, identity, as well as approaches to assessing the national past”1.

Despite the active interest of researchers, the conceptual apparatus of this problem is debatable, there are different interpretations of the term "historical memory", different approaches to its study. In this regard, a historiographic analysis of this problem is necessary, which is the purpose of the article. Its tasks include characterization of the main views of the founders of memorial historiography and their reflection in the works of Russian researchers. Historiographical constants in my analysis are historical memory, its structure, formation mechanisms and its relationship with historical knowledge.

For a correct assessment of the work of domestic researchers, it is necessary first of all to

1 Morozov O. V. Rev. on the book: Leontyeva O. B. Historical memory and images of the past in the Russian culture XIX- the beginning of the 20th century. S. 374.

turn to the works of one of the founders of memorial problems M. Halbvaks. He was the first to propose the interpretation of memory as a socially conditioned element of social consciousness and collective identity. The French scientist believed that memory cannot be considered as something inherent only in “a purely individual body or consciousness”, that there is a completely unique phenomenon of the formation of group consciousness, the study of which requires an interdisciplinary approach. Highlighting interconnected individual memory based on personal experience, and collective memory2. Thus, in his works, for the first time, he drew attention to the study of memory within the framework of a collective (social) dimension, and not just individual autobiographical experience.

Modern domestic scientists conduct research on this problem in an interdisciplinary field. An important issue is the correlation of historical knowledge, historical memory and historical consciousness. M. A. Barg was one of the first to raise this problem, believing that it is a mistake to identify historical consciousness and historical memory, because this means identifying it only with the experience of the past, depriving measurements of the present and future. He pointed out: “Public consciousness is historical not only because its content has been

2 Halbvaks M. Collective and historical memory. S. 8.

time develops and changes, but also because by its certain side it is "turned" into the past, "immersed" in history. On this occasion, L.P. Repina writes: “The basis of any historical writing is, first of all, historical consciousness, uniting the past with the present, projected into the future”2. The Russian sociologist Yu. A. Levada gives the following definition of historical consciousness: “This concept embraces the whole variety of spontaneously formed or science-created forms in which society is aware of its past”3.

The very concept of historical consciousness, according to scientists, is broader than the concept of historical memory. If memory is basically turned to the experience of the past, the experience of history, then historical and social consciousness is, as it were, the embodiment of the experience of the past, projected in the present and oriented towards the future, as if a product formed in the process of society's awareness of itself, its relationship to history in present tense.

Often history and historical memory are perceived as synonyms, but this is not so. According to M. V. Sokolova, “the study of history is aimed at a more objective and accurate reflection of the past. The oral tradition of transmitting information about the past, on the contrary, is mythological, characterized by the fact that memory retains and “reproduces” information about the past on the basis of imagination generated by feelings and sensations”4. V. N. Badmaev, drawing attention to the question of the relationship between history and memory, writes: “... Historical memory is characterized as a stable system of ideas about the past that exist in the public mind. It is characterized not so much by a rational as by an emotional assessment of the past. In this he sees the fundamental difference between historical science and historical memory. According to Badmaev, historical memory is selective, highlighting some facts, it consigns others to oblivion.

L.P. Repina in her writings emphasizes that it is impossible to draw a clear line between historical knowledge and historical memory, since there is no significant gap between them. “... The most important difference between history and memory is that the historian can discover what is not in memory, what concerned "immemorial

1 Barg M.A. Epochs and ideas: the formation of historicism. pp. 5-6.

2 Repina L.P. Historical science. S. 479.

3 Levada Yu. A. Historical consciousness and scientific method. S. 191.

4 Sokolova M. V. What is historical memory. S. 37.

5 Badmaev VN Mentality and historical memory. S. 79.

times", or simply forgotten. This is one of the main functions of historical research "6. An important subject of research by Russian scientists is the structure of historical memory, its forms and classification. L.P. Repina points out: "Historical memory finds its expression in various forms. There are two models for representing the historical past: this is the epic (the original sound way of transmitting historical memory) and the chronicle (originally the written way of fixing it)”7.

I. N. Gorin and V. V. Menshchikov give their classification of the forms of historical memory: firstly, this is “the memory of generations, transmitted and stored in the form of an oral history of the community, which tends to transform events, forget “little things” or supplement them with new ones. elements. In this process, the sacralization of events takes place, during which the next form appears - myths. Researchers note the peculiarity of the myth as "a special form of historical memory, freeing it from archetypes, we can reproduce the historical background""8.

The next form of historical memory is scientific. Following her, I.N. Gorin and

V. V. Menshchikov also single out such a form as cultural and historical symbols, believing that this is “a form of historical memory based on the refraction of historical events through the system of values ​​and ethical and cultural norms dominant in society.” These are events, phenomena, facts and heroes of the past, which received a certain significance and value content in the “historical memory of a particular community”9. Scientists believe that this concept also corresponds to the concept of "image of the past", actively used in modern research. We can agree that the image of an event, first of all, embodies a symbol that glorifies certain characters and an event. The symbol becomes a kind of schematized idea.

O. B. Leontieva pays great attention to the problem of forming historical images of the past as a “method of studying historical memory”. In her opinion, “it is precisely the images of events and characters of the past created in the works of artistic culture, are the basis of everyday ideas about the past”10.

6 Repina L.P. Historical science. S. 435.

7 Ibid. S. 419.

8 Gorin I. N., Menshchikov V. V. Cultural and historical symbols and historical memory. S. 74.

9 Ibid. S. 76.

10 Leontyeva O. B. Historical memory and images of the past.

The researcher notes that the study of images of the past allows us to trace the visual process of turning the facts of reality into facts of historical memory.

Undoubtedly, the image of the past is the fundamental basis of historical memory. It is with the help of a complex of fragmentary memories, everyday ideas about history that we have the opportunity to observe and study the phenomenon of historical memory. Images of the past exist in various forms. These can be images of specific historical events, individual historical figures, social groups or collective types. event image or historical personality, as a rule, is based on a complex of non-systematic memories. Over time, when the events experienced turn into history, when there are fewer and fewer contemporaries left, the image is more and more transformed and modified, more and more moving away from historical reality. So the complex of images of the past forms historical memory.

Researchers pay special attention to the mechanisms of formation of historical memory. On the basis of what are some facts forgotten and others updated? After all, memory is not formed chaotically, it is based on a complex of certain components. The formation of images of the past can be considered the basic mechanism for the formation of historical memory.

The process of selecting the historical past, actualization or conscious oblivion of certain facts are associated with such concepts as commemoration and recommemoration. They can be considered as varieties of mechanisms for the formation of historical memory. One of the founders of these concepts, A. Megill, defines commemoration as a process when "recorded memories of past events can turn into something akin to objects of religious veneration." He believes that when worship arises, “memory becomes something else: memory becomes commemoration”1. His views influenced domestic scientists. G. M. Ageeva defines commemoration as “perpetuating the memory of events: the construction of monuments, the organization of museums, the definition significant dates, holidays, mass events and much more»2.

Thus, commemoration is seen as a purposeful actualization of the historical

1 Megill A. Historical epistemology. S. 110.

2 Ageeva G. M. Practices of virtual commemoration in the library and information sphere. S. 156.

cal memory. Badmaev notes that “historical memory reacts in a particularly peculiar way to tragic and dramatic events history: wars, revolutions, repressions. Such periods are characterized by the destabilization of social structures, the growth of contradictions and conflicts”3. In the context of such a destabilization of society, commemorative practices play a rather important role. N. V. Grishina, analyzing the concept of A. Megill, believes that commemoration is “a kind of way of holding the community together, purposeful recollection”4. The researcher also agrees with A. Megill that “commemoration arises in the present from the desire of a community that exists in this moment, to confirm the feeling of one's unity and community, strengthening ties within the community through the attitude shared by its members<...>to the representation of past events.

The opposite of commemoration is the process of recommemoration as a purposeful and conscious process of forgetting certain tragic, painful pages of history for society, keeping silent about the crimes committed by one or another community in the past. The process of "forgetting", in our opinion, should also be interpreted as one of the mechanisms for the formation of historical memory. How is the process of selecting historical facts that have become the foundation for the formation of historical memory going? V. N. Badmaev notes that the causes of oblivion may be different, due to feelings of guilt or “cliotraumatic-ness”. L.P. Repina believes that “the conscious manipulation of public consciousness can be one of the reasons for the process of oblivion”6. O. B. Leontieva emphasizes “the selective and creative nature of historical memory, while oblivion is its integral element, with the help of which a holistic picture of the past with internal logic is built”7. Thus, the study of the selectivity of historical memory is one of the debatable problems. The process of oblivion can be quite purposeful, when the unpleasant facts of history are deliberately erased from the memory of society and updated

3 Badmaev VN Mentality and historical memory. S. 80.

4 Grishina N. V. V. O. Klyuchevsky’s school of historical science and Russian culture. S. 24.

5 Megill A. Historical epistemology. S. 116.

6 Repina L.P., Zvereva V.V., Paramonova M.Yu. History of historical knowledge. pp. 11-12.

7 Leontyeva OB Historical memory and images of the past. S. 13.

heroic milestones of the country's past.

When studying historical memory, it is necessary to analyze another conceptual, indisputably important, mechanism for its formation - the creation of "places of memory". Domestic researchers were influenced by the concept of P. Nora, who wrote: “Places of memory are the remains. The extreme form in which commemorative consciousness exists in history<...>Museums, archives, cemeteries, collections, holidays, anniversaries, treatises, protocols, monuments, temples, associations - all these values ​​in themselves are witnesses of another era, illusions of eternity. There is a close connection between commemorative practices and places of memory. In addition, memorial historiography has developed the idea that images of the past cannot exist without places of memory, since they need a specific form of fixation on the basis of which they can be formed. In this regard, places of memory are one of the basic elements for constructing and visualizing images of the past.

When analyzing the features of historical memory, the political motive for its construction comes to the fore. The authorities purposefully use the mechanisms of forming historical memory in order to consolidate society, form a common understanding of the commonality of their past, their national heritage and national identity. At the same time, the process of forming historical memory goes in parallel with the formation of a general attitude towards power in general. T. A. Bulygina and T. N. Kozhemyako note that “the historical memory of society is modeled according to various patterns developed by the authorities and the opposition over many decades of national history”2.

The connection between historical memory and political structures is noted by V.I. Mazhnikov, believing that the actualization of the study of historical political elite in activating the impact on the mass public consciousness”3.

“Political manipulation of historical memory is a powerful means of controlling the consciousness of a person and society,” notes L.P. Repina, “not only official authorities, but also opposition ones are busy constructing acceptable versions of historical memory.

1 Nora P. France - memory. S. 26.

2 Bulygina T. A. Historical memory and anniversaries in Russia in the XX-XXI centuries. S. 63.

3 Mazhnikov V. I. Historical memory of the Stalingrad

battle. S. 8.

forces and various social movements. We can agree that the struggle for political leadership often manifests itself as a rivalry between different versions of historical memory and different characters her greatness.

Thus, the problem of historical memory is relevant and, at the same time, debatable in modern historical science. The actualization of this problem is quite understandable, because in modern society, in the context of globalization, rethinking of human history, information war and political instability, a common heritage, a common historical memory become basic and key element formation of national identity and national unity. This social significance should also correspond to the development, if not of unified points of view on this problem, then of a unified conceptual apparatus. This should move scholarly discussions away from the scholastic dispute over definitions towards a more meaningful study of both historical memory and the mechanisms of its formation.

Bibliography

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Dmitrieva Olga Olegovna - post-graduate student of the Department of History and Culture foreign countries Chuvash State University named after I. N. Ulyanov. [email protected]

Bulletin of Chelyabinsk State University. 2015. No. 6 (361). history. Issue 63. P. 132-137.

HISTORICAL MEMORY AND MECHANISMS OF ITS FORMATION: ANALYSIS OF HISTORIOGRAPHICAL CONCEPTS IN DOMESTIC SCIENCE

A post-graduate student of the Department of History and Culture of Foreign Countries, Chuvash State University.

[email protected]

Studies by Russian scientists lay the foundation of this work to analyze the concept of""historical memory" and to reveal its shape and classification. Such concepts as "historical consciousness", "commemoration", "recommemoration", "image of the past", "memory location" are seen as mechanisms of the formation of historical memory. The "recommemoration" is analyzed as a purposeful process of oblivion of certain historical facts. Different interpretations of the role of memory in the process of constructing a national identity are The article describes scientific views of foreign scholars researching memorial subjects (M. Halbwachs, P. Nora, A. Megill), as well as the impact of their views on the concepts of national scholars (G. M. Ageeva, V. N. Badmaev, M. A. Barg , T. A. Bulygina, T. N. Kozhemyako, N. V. Grishina, I. N. Gorin, V. V. Menshikov, Y. A. Levada, O. B. Leontieva, V. I. Mazhovnikov, O. V. Morozov, M. V. Sokolova, L. P. Repina).

Keywords: historical memory; historical consciousness; the image of the past; commemoration.

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6. Gorin I. N., Menshchikov V. V. Kul "turno-istoricheskie simvoly i istoricheskaya pamyat" . Istoriko-pedagogicheskie chteniya, 2007, no. 11, pp. 74-78. (In Russ.).

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10. Megill A. Historic epistemologiya. M., Kanon+, 2007, 480 p. (In Russian).

11. Morozov O. V. Rets. Na kn .: Leont "eva O.B. Istoricheskaya pamyat" i obrazy proshlogo v rossiiskoi kul "tureXIX- nachalaXXv". (Samara: Kniga, 2011. 447s.) . Dialog so vremenem, 2014, vol. 46, 399 p. (In Russ .).

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One of essential qualities, which has always distinguished man from animals, is undoubtedly considered memory. The past for a person is the most important source for the formation of one's own consciousness and determining one's personal place in society and the world around.

Losing memory, a person loses his orientation among the environment, social ties collapse.

What is collective historical memory?

Memory is not abstract knowledge of any events. Memory is life experience, knowledge of events experienced and felt, reflected emotionally. Historical memory is a collective concept. It lies in the preservation of the public, as well as the understanding of historical experience. The collective memory of generations can be both among family members, the population of the city, and among the whole nation, country and all mankind.

Stages of development of historical memory

It must be understood that collective historical memory, as well as individual, has several stages of development.

First, it is oblivion. After a certain period of time, people tend to forget events. It can happen quickly, or it can happen in a few years. Life does not stand still, the series of episodes is not interrupted, and many of them are replaced by new impressions and emotions.

Secondly, people again and again encounter past facts in scientific articles, literary works and media. And everywhere the interpretation of the same events can vary greatly. And not always they can be attributed to the concept of "historical memory". Each author presents the arguments of the events in his own way, putting his own view and personal attitude into the narrative. And it doesn't matter what topic it will be - world war, all-Union construction or the consequences of a hurricane.

Readers and listeners will perceive the event through the eyes of a reporter or writer. Different versions of the presentation of the facts of the same event make it possible to analyze, compare the opinions of different people and draw their own conclusions. The true memory of the people is able to develop only with freedom of speech, and it will be completely distorted with total censorship.

The third, most important stage in the development of people's historical memory is the comparison of events taking place in the present time with facts from the past. The relevance of today's problems of society can sometimes be directly related to the historical past. Only by analyzing the experience of past achievements and mistakes, a person is able to create.

Hypothesis of Maurice Halbwachs

The theory of historical collective memory, like any other, has its founder and followers. The French philosopher and sociologist Maurice Halbwachs was the first to put forward the hypothesis that the concepts of historical memory and history are far from being the same thing. He was the first to suggest that history begins exactly when tradition ends. There is no need to fix on paper what is still alive in memories.

Halbwachs's theory proved the need to write history only for subsequent generations, when there were few or no more witnesses of historical events alive. There were quite a few followers and opponents of this theory. The number of the latter increased after the war with fascism, during which all members of the philosopher's family were killed, and he himself died in Buchenwald.

Ways to communicate memorable events

The memory of the people to past events was expressed in various forms. In the old days, it was the oral transmission of information in fairy tales, legends and traditions. The characters were endowed with the heroic traits of real people who distinguished themselves by feats and courage. Epic stories have always sung of the courage of the defenders of the Fatherland.

Later, these were books, and now the media have become the main sources of coverage of historical facts. Today, they mainly form our perception and attitude to the experience of the past, fateful events in politics, economics, culture and science.

The relevance of the historical memory of the people

Why is the memory of the war waning?

Time is the best healer for pain, but the worst factor for memory. This applies both to the memory of generations about the war, and in general to the historical memory of the people. The erasure of the emotional component of memories depends on several reasons.

The first thing that greatly affects the strength of memory is the time factor. With each passing year, the tragedy of those terrible days is getting further and further away. 70 years have passed since the victorious end of World War II.

The political and ideological factor also influences the preservation of the reliability of the events of the war years. The intensity in the modern world allows the media to evaluate many aspects of the war unreliably, from a negative point of view, convenient for politicians.

And one more inevitable factor influencing the people's memory of the war is natural. This is a natural loss of eyewitnesses, defenders of the Motherland, those who defeated fascism. Every year we lose those who bear "living memory". With the departure of these people, the heirs of their victory are unable to keep the memory in the same colors. Gradually, it acquires shades of real events of the present and loses its authenticity.

Let's keep the "living" memory of the war

The historical memory of the war is formed and preserved in the minds of the younger generation not only from bare historical facts and a chronicle of events.

The most emotional factor is “living memory”, that is, the memory of the people itself. Every Russian family knows about these terrible years from eyewitness accounts: stories of grandfathers, letters from the front, photographs, military things and documents. Many testimonies of the war are stored not only in museums, but also in personal archives.

It is already difficult for little Russians today to imagine a hungry, destructive time that brings grief every day. That piece of bread laid according to the norm in besieged Leningrad, those daily radio reports about events at the front, that terrible sound of the metronome, that postman who brought not only letters from the front line, but also funerals. But fortunately, they can still hear the stories of their great-grandfathers about the stamina and courage of Russian soldiers, about how little boys slept at the machines just to make more shells for the front. True, these stories are rarely without tears. It hurts too much to remember.

Artistic image of war

The second possibility of preserving the memory of the war is literary descriptions of the events of the war years in books, documentaries and feature films. Against the backdrop of large-scale events in the country, they always touch on the topic of a separate fate of a person or family. It is encouraging that interest in military topics today is manifested not only in anniversaries. Over the past decade, many films have appeared that tell about the events of the Great Patriotic War. On the example of a single fate, the viewer is introduced to the front-line difficulties of pilots, sailors, scouts, sappers and snipers. Modern film technologies allow young generation feel the scale of the tragedy, hear the "real" volleys of guns, feel the heat of the flames of Stalingrad, see the severity of military transitions during the redeployment of troops

Modern coverage of history and historical consciousness

Understanding and representations modern society about the years and events of World War II today is ambiguous. The main explanation for this ambiguity can rightfully be considered the information war unfolded in the media in recent years.

Today, without disdaining any world media, they give the floor to those who during the war years took the side of fascism and participated in the mass genocide of people. Some recognize their actions as "positive", thereby trying to erase their cruelty and inhumanity from memory. Bandera, Shukhevych, General Vlasov and Helmut von Pannwitz have now become heroes for radical youth. All this is the result of an information war, which our ancestors had no idea about. Attempts to distort historical facts sometimes reach the point of absurdity, when the merits of the Soviet Army are belittled.

Protecting the authenticity of events - preserving the historical memory of the people

The historical memory of the war is the main value of our people. Only it will allow Russia to remain the strongest state.

The authenticity of the historical events covered today will help to preserve the truth of the facts and the clarity of assessment of the past experience of our country. The fight for truth is always hard. Even if this fight will be "with fists", we must defend the truth of our history in memory of our grandfathers.

historical memory

Stolyarchuk Olga Svyatoslavovna,

Lecturer at the National Technical University of Ukraine "Kyiv Polytechnic Institute".

In the center modern science there are debatable problems that require their reflection and rethinking in a new paradigm. Such is the problem of historical memory, which is ontologically, epistemologically and axiologically significant. At the end of the twentieth century, along with the concepts of historical knowledge and historical consciousness, the concept of historical memory appears and is interpreted in different ways: as a way of preserving and transmitting the past in an era of loss of tradition, as an individual memory of the past, as a collective memory of the past, as a social memory of the past and , finally, simply as a synonym for historical consciousness. Historical memory reproduces the continuity and continuity of social life. The content of memory is the past, but without it it is impossible to think in the present, the past is the deep foundation of the actual process of consciousness. Mass ideas about the past persist as long as it serves the needs of the present. The craving for historical knowledge is significant. We find the study of memory problems in the works of such philosophers as: Plato, Aristotle, Plotinus, A. Augustine, G. Gobbe, D. Locke, I. Kant, G. W. Hegel, K. Marx, F. Nietzsche, M. Heidegger , P. Ricker, N.A. Berdyaev, M. Lopatin, V. Solovyov, P. A. Florensky.

Interest in the past is dictated by the desire to know the truth about the past, the desire to broaden one's horizons, the need to understand and know the roots of one's country, one's people, the desire to find an answer to topical questions.

Maurice Halbwachs is considered the founder of the theory of historical memory, the essence of his hypothesis is that history and historical memory are opposite in many respects: history usually begins at the moment when tradition ends, when social memory fades or disintegrates. As long as the memory continues to exist, there is no need to fix it in writing, and in general to somehow fix it. Therefore, the need to write the history of this or that period, society and even a person arises only when they have gone so far into the past that we have little chance of finding many witnesses around us who retain any memory of them.

For Aristotle, memory is the memory of the past “memory is neither sensation nor comprehension, but an acquired property or state of one of them over time. The present cannot be remembered at the moment of the present, but the present is comprehended by sensation, the future by foresight, and the past by memory. This means that any memory is together with time. According to Plato, knowledge ultimately turns out to be recollection.

Historical memory has the peculiarity of keeping the main historical events of the past in people's minds up to the transformation of historical knowledge into various forms of worldview perception of past experience, its fixation in legends, fairy tales, traditions, contains knowledge about battles, fateful events, life and activities of politicians, scientists, technology and art. We can say that historical memory is to some extent a focused consciousness that reflects the significance and relevance of information about the past in close connection with the present and future. It is an expression of the process of organizing, preserving and reproducing the past experience of a people, country, state for its possible use in people's activities or for the return of its influence to the sphere of public consciousness, it is "the most important component of the self-identification of an individual, a social group and society as a whole, because the separation of animated images of the historical past is a type of memory that has special meaning for the constitution and integration of social groups in the present".

The use of the term memory for history verification is perfectly legal. But the question is what should be the historian's attitude towards these historical "recollections". Historical memory or, more precisely, the narration of the past, can serve the historian as evidence of what objectively happened in the past, that is, what happened in the form of externally observable events, as well as be a witness to what happened in the form of externally observable events, as well as to be a witness to how the past was experienced by those people who later recorded their memories. Historical consciousness is generated by the memory of the past and becomes a thought extended through the chain of time. People, as direct carriers of historical consciousness, evaluate social memory in different ways, they are its organizing principle. They single out something as important, forget what they don't want to remember, and look to the future with optimism or despair. This cannot be explained only on the basis of the principle of historicism, but historical consciousness is the engine of development choice. At points of bifurcation, for example, in years of acute instability, even subjective factors change historical consciousness, which rebuilds the understanding of social memory. It can be said that the connection between social memory and historical consciousness lies in the fact that historical consciousness relies on memory, being creativity, on its basis creates its own understanding of reality. Over time, the very thought of history becomes a memory, thereby its constant development takes place. "Historical memory, as a way of identifying the "historical", is inextricably linked with historical tradition; outside of it, historical memory does not exist either.

Memory is the creator of the past, and its historical capacity is in time. Only thanks to the knowledge of the past, a person is able to distinguish between what is possible for him and what is impossible. Only he who knows how the people developed is able to determine what will be useful to him in the future. Truth must be sought, a kind of fallacy that is difficult to refute. The past is given to us as traces, that is, as a heritage that should be remembered.

Historical memory takes the form of knowledge in historical science. It is possible to demonstrate different dimensions of history as a "history of memory" using concrete examples. The central point in such studies is the reflection of historians on the time in which they live and how it affects the images of the past. The “history of memory” becomes especially interesting where we find ourselves on the trail of historical memory, i.e. historical landmarks, which is expressed in different interpretations and assessments of the same events. Memory in itself chains a person to the past, to the traditions of those dead generations, which, in the words of K. Marx, "gravitate like a nightmare over the minds of the living."

In order for a person to be able to reveal his being in the modern world without losing touch with the previous one, it is necessary that he be able to understand the meaning of already existing artifacts. Throughout life, we learn something new and accumulate information through memory. Memory connects the subject's past with his present and future and is the most important cognitive process. Objective conditions bring to life a subjective factor, the content of which is determined by the individuals in demand. But individuals can be outstanding and mediocre... The fate of the objective conditions for the development of the country, and ultimately the fate of its population, depends on them. But in critical periods in the development of history, the most acute question arises about the meaning and purpose of the existence of the whole society. The historian uses research that is unacceptable from the point of view of reliability, facts are adjusted to obtain the necessary justification for the ultimate goal or some state of affairs in the present. We understand and must agree that with periodic and inevitable changes in political regimes and authorities, historical assessments change, a gap between the past and the present closes, and therefore prevents an objective approach to historical knowledge. It can be argued that the events of the past have value and significance, a reasonable basis only in the context of the time in which they existed, since we are talking about the obstacles of an objective approach in historical knowledge, as a condition for truth and truth. History, as Nietzsche said, "we need for life and activity, and not for a convenient escape from life and activity." The present, that is, being, does not need memory.

In a certain sense, according to M. Mamardashvili, the past is the enemy of thought, because it prevents us from understanding what is in reality. Sometimes a person and society needs to clear their minds of imperfect ideas and experiences in order to rethink what has been passed, experienced. F. Nietzsche wrote about this in his work “On the benefits and harms of history”. However, such a “purification” does not pass without updating what has already happened. Of great interest in this respect for us is the position of the outstanding philosopher of the twentieth century Karl Popper on the interaction of the past, present and future. He substantiates the position about the asymmetry of the past and the future, that the past has already taken place and we cannot influence it, unless our knowledge about it can change. However, our life and activities are aimed at the opportunity to influence the future. The "arrows of time" are somehow directed to the future.

We are talking about an era captured in human thought, as well as about the soul of culture, which is born in a certain ecumene (inhabited space), where a dialogue is formed between a person and his environment.

Conclusion

Life goes on. The search for truth is not over. The future belongs to the model of society that, while preserving historical memory, will allow society and the individual to choose the ways and means of solving modern problems. For many centuries man has acted too little and thought too little.

The appeal to historical experience in the course of political discussions, the polarity of assessments of historical figures and events, and attempts to radically change the picture of the historical past in the public mind caused fierce debate. The policy in the field of historical memory is based on the conscious adjustment of the facts of the historical past to the tasks of forming a national identity, and this is not always compatible with the search for truth, and it is in historical knowledge that this requirement is most difficult to comply with.

Ultimately, it depends on the activities of the current generations whether the 21st millennium of world history will become its tragic epilogue or the inspiring prologue of universal human solidarity. I think that ultimately, in the foreseeable future, the future of mankind is the further ascent of the real historical process to new levels in the development of society. This progressive movement cannot be either a simple continuation of the present or a cyclic repetition of the past, because at its core this process means the formation of a completely new, unprecedented in the history of a democratic society that is guided by the age-old ideals of mankind.

Literature

1. Aristotle. On memory and recollection // Questions of Philosophy. - 2004. - No. 7.

2. Berdyaev N.A. The meaning of history. M., ch.1.

3. Baudrillard J. The system of things: Translated from French. Prolegomena to history. - 375.

4. Marx K. The eighteenth brumaire of Louis Bonaparte // Selected. cit.: in 9 volumes / K. Marx, F. Engels. T.4 p.5.

5. Mamardashvili M. Cartesian reflections. - M., 1993 p.31.

6.Maurice Halbwachs M. Collective and historical memory // Emergency reserve 2005. No. 2-3 p.22.

7. Nietzsche F. O. On the benefits and harms of history for life P.159.

8. Panarin A.S. A people without an elite. M., 2006. p.193.

9. Plato. Te emem / Plato // Collected. op. // in 4 vols. M., 1993. - T.2. - p.25.

10. L.P. Repina History and memory. M., 2006 pp. 23-24.

FOREWORD

The manual presents a picture of the evolution of historical knowledge, the formation of the latter as a scientific discipline. Readers can get acquainted with various forms of knowledge and perception of the past in their historical development, enter the course of modern controversy about the place of history in society, focus on an in-depth study of key problems in the history of historical thought, features of various forms of historical writing, the emergence, distribution and change of research settings , formation and development of history as an academic science.

Today, ideas about the subject of the history of historiography, the model of historical and historiographical analysis, and the very status of the discipline have changed significantly. The so-called problematic historiography recedes into the background, the emphasis is shifted to the study of the functioning and transformation of historical knowledge in the sociocultural context. The manual shows how the forms of knowledge of the past changed in the course of the development of society, being in relationship with the fundamental features of a particular type of cultural and social organization of society.

The manual consists of nine chapters, each of which is devoted to a separate period in the development of historical knowledge - from the origins in the culture of ancient civilizations to the present (the turn of the 20th - 21st centuries). Particular attention is paid to the relationship of history with other areas of knowledge, the most common conceptual models historical development, principles of analysis of historical sources, social functions of history, specific features of historical knowledge.

INTRODUCTION

This guide is based on training course"History of historical science", or - more precisely - "History of historical knowledge", the content of which is determined modern understanding nature and functions of historical knowledge.

The methodological foundations of the course are determined by a number of ideas put forward in the course of the controversy about the nature of humanitarian knowledge.

Firstly, it is a statement of the specifics of historical knowledge and the relativity of the criteria of truth and reliability in historical research. The relativity of historical knowledge is predetermined by a number of factors, primarily by the initial ambiguity of the three main components of historical research: historical fact, historical source, and method of historical research. Trying to find out the "objective truth" about the past, the researcher becomes a hostage of both his own subjectivity and the "subjectivity" of the evidence that he subjects to the rational analysis procedure. The limits and possibilities of historical knowledge are outlined both by the incompleteness of the surviving evidence, and the lack of guarantees that the reality reflected in these evidence is a reliable image of the era under study, and, finally, by the intellectual tools of the researcher. The historian always, voluntarily or involuntarily, turns out to be subjective in his interpretation of the past and its reconstruction: the researcher interprets it based on the conceptual and ideological constructions of his own era, guided by personal preferences and the subjective choice of certain intellectual models. Thus, historical knowledge and the image of the past it offers are always subjective, partial in their fullness, and relative in their truth. Recognition of one's own limitations, however, does not prevent historical scientific knowledge from being rational, having its own method, language and social significance 1 .

Secondly, the originality of the subject and methods of historical research, and hence of historical knowledge in general, is of fundamental importance. In the process of the formation of historical science, the understanding of the subject and tasks of research has undergone significant changes. The modern practice of historical research recognizes not only the breadth of its field, but also the possibility of different approaches to the study of past phenomena and their interpretation. From empirical science, the main purpose of which was the study of events, primarily politically significant, fixing milestones in the development of state formations and causal relationships between individual facts, history has evolved into a discipline that studies society in its dynamics. In the historian's field of vision wide circle phenomena - from the economic and political life of the country to the problems of private existence, from climate change to the identification of people's ideas about the world. The subject of study is events, models of people's behavior, systems of their values ​​and motivations. Modern history is the history of events, processes and structures, privacy person. Such a diversification of the research field is due to the fact that, regardless of the preferences of specific research areas, the object of historical knowledge is a person whose nature and behavior are diverse in themselves and can be considered from different angles and relationships. The story turned out to be the most universal and capacious of all humanitarian disciplines new time, its development was not only accompanied by the formation of new areas of scientific knowledge - sociology, psychology, economics, etc., but was associated with borrowing and adapting their methods and problems to their own tasks. The breadth of historical knowledge justifiably raises doubts among researchers about the legitimacy of the existence of history as a self-sufficient scientific discipline. History, both in content and in form, was born in integral interaction with other areas of the study of reality (geography, description of peoples, etc.) literary genres; having been constituted as a special discipline, it was again included in the system of interdisciplinary interaction.

Thirdly, historical knowledge is not now, and never was before, from the moment of its formation, a purely academic or intellectual phenomenon 1 . Its functions are distinguished by a wide social coverage, one way or another, are reflected in critical areas social consciousness and social practices. Historical knowledge and interest in the past are always conditioned by problems relevant to society.

That is why the image of the past is not so much recreated as created by descendants, who, positively or negatively evaluating their predecessors, thus justify their own decisions and actions. One of the extreme forms of updating the past is the anachronistic transfer to previous eras of ideological constructions and schemes that dominate the political and social practice of the present. But not only the past becomes a victim of ideologies and anachronisms - the present is no less dependent on the image of its own history shown to it. The historical picture offered to society as its "genealogy" and significant experience is a powerful tool for influencing social consciousness. The attitude to one's own historical past, which dominates in society, determines its idea of ​​itself and knowledge of the tasks of further development. Thus, history, or a picture of the past, is part of social consciousness, an element of political and ideological ideas, and the source material for determining a strategy. social development. Without history, in other words, it is impossible to form a social identity and an idea of ​​one's prospects either for an individual community or for humanity as a whole.

Fourth, historical knowledge is a functionally important element of social memory, which in turn is a complex multi-level and historically changeable phenomenon. In particular, in addition to the rational tradition of preserving knowledge about the past, there is a collective social memory, as well as family and individual memory, largely based on the subjective and emotional perception of the past. Despite the differences, all types of memory are closely related, their boundaries are conditional and permeable. Scientific knowledge influences the formation of collective ideas about the past and, in turn, is influenced by mass stereotypes. The historical experience of society was and in many respects remains the result of both a rational understanding of the past and its intuitive and emotional perception.

The didactic and pedagogical goals of the course are determined by a number of considerations.

Firstly, the need to introduce into the practice of specialized humanitarian education a course that updates the previously studied material. This actualization of the material not only emphasizes the most important information blocks, but also introduces its driving mechanism into the knowledge system - the method of studying the past. Acquaintance with the technique of historical knowledge provides a practical opportunity to understand and feel the most important immanent feature of historical knowledge - a paradoxical combination of objectivity and conventionality in it.

Secondly, this course, demonstrating the strength and weakness of historical knowledge, its multilevel nature and dependence on the cultural context, in fact, carries out desacralization " scientific picture historical past." It reflects the coordinates denoting the boundaries of historical research, its social functions and the possibility of influencing public consciousness. It can be said that the main pedagogical goal of this course is the awakening of healthy skepticism and a critical attitude towards many seemingly obvious assessments of the past and definitions of the patterns of social development.

The construction of the course follows the logic of the historical development of the object of study - historical knowledge - from archaic antiquity to the present day, in the context of society and culture. The course examines the main forms and levels of historical knowledge: myth, mass perception of the past, rational knowledge (philosophy of history), academic historicism, historical sociology, cultural studies, and the latest trends in historical research. The objective of the course is to demonstrate the fact of the diversity and variability of the forms of cognition of the past in historical and civilizational perspectives. The perception and knowledge of the past, as well as the assessment of its significance for the present, were different among the people of ancient Rome, the inhabitants of medieval Europe and representatives of industrial society. Historical consciousness differs no less fundamentally in cultural traditions European and Eastern civilizations. A significant part of the course is devoted to the analysis of the formation of national historical knowledge and, above all, to a comparison of the development paths and mechanisms of interaction between Russian and European traditions.

In addition to the historical, the course has a structural component, focuses on the main categories and concepts of historical knowledge, such concepts as "history", "historical time", "historical source", "historical truth" and " historical pattern". The course shows the complex structure of historical knowledge, in particular, the differentiation of the scientific rational tradition and the mass irrational perception of the past, as well as their interaction. One of the most significant is the theme of the formation of historical myths and prejudices, their rooting in the mass consciousness and influence on political ideology.

Chapter 1. WHAT IS HISTORY

The arguments that a person comes up with on his own usually convince him more than those that come to the mind of others.

Blaise Pascal

Terms and issues

The word "history" in most European languages ​​has two main meanings: one of them refers to the past of mankind, the other - to the literary and narrative genre, a story, often fictional, about certain events. In the first sense, history means the past in the broadest sense - as a set of human deeds. In addition, the term "history" indicates knowledge about the past and denotes the totality of social ideas about the past. Synonyms of history in this case are the concepts of "historical memory", "historical consciousness", "historical knowledge" and "historical science".

The phenomena denoted by these concepts are interconnected, and it is often difficult, almost impossible, to draw a line between them. However, in general, the first two concepts are more indicative of a spontaneously formed image of the past, while the last two imply a predominantly purposeful and critical approach to its cognition and evaluation.

It is noteworthy that the term "history", which implies knowledge of the past, retains to a large extent its literary meaning. Knowledge of the past and the presentation of this knowledge in a coherent oral or written presentation always involves a story about certain events and phenomena, revealing their formation, development, internal drama and significance. History as a special form of human knowledge was formed within the framework of literary creativity and keeps in touch with him to this day.

Historical sources are diverse in nature: these are written monuments, oral traditions, works of material and artistic culture. For some eras, this evidence is extremely scarce, for others it is abundant and heterogeneous. However, in any case, they do not recreate the past as such, and their information is not direct. For posterity, these are only fragments of a lost forever picture of the past. To recreate historical events, information about the past must be identified, deciphered, analyzed and interpreted. Cognition of the past is connected with the procedure of its reconstruction. A scientist, as well as any person interested in history, does not simply investigate some object, but, in essence, recreates it. This is the difference between the subject of historical knowledge and the subject of exact sciences, where any phenomenon is perceived as an unconditional reality, even if it has not been studied and explained.

Historical knowledge was formed in antiquity in the process of development of society and social consciousness. The interest of the community of people in their past has become one of the manifestations of the tendency towards self-knowledge and self-determination. It was based on two interrelated motives - the desire to preserve the memory of oneself for posterity and the desire to understand one's own present by referring to the experience of ancestors. different eras and different civilizations throughout the history of mankind have shown interest in the past, not only in different forms, but also in different degrees. The general and fair judgment of modern science can be considered the assumption that only in European culture, which has its origins in Greco-Roman antiquity, did the knowledge of the past acquire exceptional social and political significance. All eras of the formation of the so-called Western civilization - antiquity, the Middle Ages, modern times - are marked by the interest of society, its individual groups and individuals in the past. The ways of preserving the past, studying it and telling about it changed in the process community development, only the tradition remained unchanged to look in the past for answers to the pressing questions of the present. Historical knowledge was not just an element European culture, but one of the most important sources of its formation. Ideology, value system, social behavior developed in accordance with the way contemporaries understood and explained their own past.

From the 60s. 20th century historical science and historical knowledge as a whole are going through a turbulent period of breaking the traditions and stereotypes that were formed in the new European society during the 18th-19th centuries. During recent decades not only new approaches to the study of history appeared, but also the idea arose that the past could be interpreted endlessly. The idea of ​​the multi-layered past suggests that there is no single history, there are only many separate “stories”. historical fact acquires reality only to the extent that it becomes part of human consciousness. The plurality of "stories" is generated not only by the complexity of the past, but also by the specifics of historical knowledge. The thesis that historical knowledge is unified and has a universal set of methods and tools for cognition was rejected by a significant part of the scientific community. The historian is recognized the right to personal choice, both the subject of research and intellectual tools.

Two questions are most essential to contemporary discussions about the meaning of history as a science. Is there a single past about which the historian must tell the truth, or does it break up into an infinite number of "stories" to be interpreted and studied? Does the researcher have the opportunity to comprehend the true meaning of the past and tell the truth about it? Both questions concern the cardinal problem of the social purpose of history and its "benefit" for society. Thinking about how historical research can be used by society in the modern, complex, changing world forces scientists to return again and again to the analysis of the mechanisms of historical consciousness, to seek an answer to the question: how and for what purpose did people of previous generations study the past. The subject of this course is history as a process of knowing the past.

Historical consciousness and historical memory

History as a process of knowing the past, including the selection and preservation of information about it, is one of the manifestations of social memory, the ability of people to store and comprehend their own experience and the experience of previous generations.

Memory is considered as one of the most important qualities of a person, which distinguishes him from animals; it is a meaningful attitude to one's own past, the most important source of personal self-awareness and self-determination. A person deprived of memory loses the opportunity to understand himself, to determine his place among other people. Memory accumulates a person's knowledge of the world, various situations in which he may find himself, his experiences and emotional reactions, information about proper behavior in everyday and emergency conditions. Memory differs from abstract knowledge: it is knowledge personally experienced and felt by a person, his life experience. Historical consciousness - the preservation and comprehension of the historical experience of society - is its collective memory.

Historical consciousness, or the collective memory of society, is heterogeneous, just like the individual memory of a person. Three circumstances are important for the formation of historical memory: oblivion of the past; different ways of interpreting the same facts and events; the discovery in the past of those phenomena in which interest is caused topical issues current life.