What does an emoticon written with symbols mean - the meanings of the designations and decoding of text emoticons. What does "P.S." mean: find out together

195/65 R15 91 T XL

195 is the tire width in mm.

65 - Proportionality, i.e. profile height to width ratio. In our case, it is equal to 65%. Simply put, with the same width, the larger this indicator, the higher the tire will be and vice versa. Usually this value is simply called “profile”.

Since the tire profile is a relative value, it is important to consider when choosing rubber that if you instead of the size 195/65 R15 if you want to put tires with a size of 205/65 R15, then not only the width of the tire will increase, but also the height! Which in most cases is unacceptable! (except when both of these sizes are indicated in the car's operating book). Accurate change data external dimensions wheels you can calculate in a special tire calculator.

If this ratio is not indicated (for example, 185/R14С), then it is equal to 80-82% and the tire is called full profile. Reinforced tires with this marking are usually used on minibuses and light trucks, where a large maximum wheel load is very important.

R - means a tire with a radial cord (in fact, almost all tires are made this way now).

Many mistakenly believe that R- stands for the radius of the tire, but this is precisely the radial design of the tire. There is also a diagonal design (denoted by the letter D), but in Lately it is practically not produced, since its operational characteristics are noticeably worse.

15 - diameter of the wheel (disk) in inches. (It is the diameter, not the radius! This is also a common mistake). This is the “landing” diameter of the tire on the disk, i.e. is the inside size of the tire or the outside of the rim.

91 - load index. This is the level of maximum permissible load on one wheel. For cars it is usually done with a margin and is not decisive when choosing tires (in our case, IN - 91 - 670 kg.). For minibuses and small trucks, this parameter is very important and must be observed.

Additional information indicated in the marking on the sidewall of the tire:

XL or Extra Load- a reinforced tire, the load index of which is 3 units higher than that of conventional tires of the same size. In other words, if a given tire has a load index of 91 marked XL or Extra Load, then this means that with this index, the tire is able to withstand a maximum load of 670 kg instead of 615 kg (see the table of tire load indices).

M+S or M&S tire marking (Mud + Snow) - mud plus snow and means that the tires are all-season or winter. Many summer tires for SUVs are labeled M&S. However, these tires must not be used in winter time, because Winter tires have a completely different rubber compound and tread pattern, and the M&S badge indicates good tire flotation.

All Season or AS all season tires. Aw (Any Weather) - Any weather.

Pictogram * (snowflake)— rubber is designed for use in harsh winter conditions. If this marking is not on the sidewall of the tire, then this tire is intended for use only in summer conditions.

Aquatred, Aquacontact, Rain, Water, Aqua or a pictogram (umbrella) - special rain tires.

outside and inside; asymmetric tires, i.e. It is important not to confuse which side is the outside and which is the inside. When installing, the Outside inscription must be on the outside of the car, and Inside on the inside.

RSC (RunFlat System Component) - tires run flat- these are tires on which you can continue to drive a car at a speed of no more than 80 km / h with a FULL drop in pressure in the tire (in case of a puncture or cut). On these tires, depending on the manufacturer's recommendations, you can drive from 50 to 150 km. Different tire manufacturers use different designations for RSC technology.
For example: Bridgestone RFT Continental SSR, Goodyear RunOnFlat, Nokian Run Flat, Michelin ZP etc.

rotation or arrow this marking on the sidewall of the tire indicates a directional tire. When installing the tire, you must strictly observe the direction of rotation of the wheel, indicated by the arrow.

Tubeless (TL)- tubeless tyre. In the absence of this inscription, the tire can only be used with a camera. Tube Type - indicates that this tire must be used only with a tube.

Max Pressure; maximum allowable tire pressure. Max load- the maximum allowable load on each wheel of the car, in kg.

Reinforced or letters RF in a standard size (for example 195/70 R15RF) means that it is a reinforced tire (6 layers).
Letter WITH at the end of the size (e.g. 195/70 R15C) indicates truck tire(8 layers).

Radial this marking on the rubber in the standard size means that it is a radial construction tire. Steel means that a metal cord is present in the tire structure.

MO- Mercedes Original - means the tires are developed with the participation of Daimler specialists / AO- Audi Original etc.

Letter E(in a circle) - the tire meets the European requirements of ECE (Economic Commission for Europe). DOT (Department of Transportation - US Department of Transportation) is an American quality standard.

Temperature A, B or C heat resistance of tires high speeds on the test bench (A is the best indicator).

Traction A, B or C- the ability of the tire to brake on a wet roadway.

Treadwear; relative expected mileage compared to a specific US standard test.

TWI(Tread Wear Indiration) - indicators of tire tread wear. The marking on the TWI wheel can also be with an arrow. Pointers are located evenly in eight or six places around the entire circumference of the tire and show the minimum allowable tread depth. The wear indicator is made in the form of a protrusion with a height of 1.6 mm (the minimum tread value for light vehicles) and is located in the tread recess (usually in the drainage grooves).

Sometimes in speech there are such words that consist of a set of letters or halves of words. It happens that the meaning of such words is unfamiliar. This is a whole group of lexemes that are in our language. Let's talk about them. We will try to find the answer to this question in the article.

Compound word

The word from Italian means "reduction". This special kind which needs to be decoded. Most often used in official business documentation, it is typical for many languages.

To understand what an abbreviation is, it is enough to consider at least one example in detail. Let's take the floor Moscow State University. At first glance, it is not clear to us. Just some set of letters. But a person who knows Russian at a level school curriculum, will immediately say that each letter stands for a word. Let's decode them: M- Moscow, G- state, At- university.

Thus, knowing the transcript, you can determine what the abbreviation means.

Acquaintance with the use of abbreviations in speech begins at school. For example, when studying biology, you can find such abbreviations: DNA - Deoxyribonucleic acid, HIV- human immunodeficiency virus, etc.

Ways to form abbreviations

Compound abbreviated words sometimes denote things that are familiar and close to us. They may look different, but they have one thing in common: in order to correctly enter such a word into your speech, it must be deciphered and correctly coordinated in the sentence.

There are several ways to form such words. Let's consider them in more detail.

In addition, English abbreviations are widely used in our speech. They accompany the following areas: science, medicine, fiction. There are many abbreviations in the specialized literature.

Deciphering compound words

Having studied theoretical material, it is easy to understand what the abbreviation is. The main thing here is to learn how to use them correctly in your speech. To do this, you need to know how such a compound word is deciphered and then correctly coordinate it in a sentence.

For example, in the sentence " After the repair of the nuclear power plant, increased electricity production"The verb has the ending A. To write it correctly, you must first decipher the word. NPP - nuclear power plant. The main word is "station", it is feminine.

Abbreviations with decoding will help to build speech correctly and competently. They also allow you to expand the vocabulary, since such decoding introduces new words.

In addition, abbreviations are constantly heard in our speech. It is necessary to know them, otherwise you can be considered an uneducated person. In addition, knowing such words will make life easier.

For example, in order to know where this sign leads, you need to decipher it. LEMZ - This is the Lianozovsky Electromechanical Plant.

Abbreviations-foreigners

Most foreign compound words - English abbreviations. These are abbreviations English words. Among them there are simple, quickly remembered, there are also complex ones. You need to know them. They can be useful at work, while traveling, in business correspondence, in other areas of human life.

Here are some English abbreviations. They can be divided into groups:

If interested complete version English abbreviations and translate them, this will contribute to the study in English. Such abbreviations with decoding also replenish the lexicon.

Abbreviations in our life

Abbreviation words accompany us through life, starting from birth in the maternity hospital (maternity hospital), which is registered in the registry office (registration of civil status). After attending preschool educational institution) we are still going through a path of eleven years in the MOKU SOSH (municipal educational institution secondary comprehensive school), where we attend lessons, sports sections ( sport sections), drama circles (dramatic circles), etc. Then we enter the university (higher educational institution) or college, get a specialty and work in a research institute (research institute) or LLC (limited liability company). Someone opens a private enterprise (private enterprise) and becomes an individual entrepreneur ( individual entrepreneur). We go to department stores (department stores), ZhEKs (housing and maintenance office), visit sports complexes (sports complexes), recreation centers (houses of culture), work on a PC (personal computer). Meanwhile, serious passions are boiling in the EU (European Union), OSCE APEC (Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation) ...

These are just a small part of the examples that demonstrate what an abbreviation is. Do not list everything. But we come across them at every turn.

The best

Origin the most common The English abbreviation OK has many variants: it is associated with the name of American biscuits, with the telegrapher's term "public key", with the initials of one of the US presidents, with the affirmative answer of the Indians.

The longest the abbreviation in Russia consists of 55 characters - NIIOMTPLABOPARMBETZHELBETRABSBORMONIMONKONOTDTEHSTROYMONT (Research Laboratory for Concrete Reinforcement and Reinforced Concrete Works for the Construction of Prefabricated Monolithic and Monolithic Structures of the Technology Department of the Construction and Installation Department of the Academy of Construction and Architecture of the USSR).

funniest abbreviation - LOCK IN THE Muzzle (Deputy Commander for Maritime Affairs).

The most ridiculous abbreviation is MUDO ( municipal institution additional education).

Surely, in their practice, each of the translators faced the problem of translating forms of ownership and abbreviations of various enterprises. On this moment no rules have yet been formulated in this direction. However, there are some key points and recommendations.

1. Firstly, I would like to note that each country has its own forms of ownership or, more correctly, it means different things by them. Speaking of various companies and enterprises, the following types of ownership can be distinguished: LLC (limited liability company), OJSC (open joint stock company), CJSC (closed joint stock company), CJSC (joint stock company closed type). In addition, there are abbreviations that characterize the direction of the enterprise: NPP (research and production enterprise), NPTs (research and production center), design bureau (design bureau), research institute (research institute) and others.

The following abbreviations are used to indicate the legal form in various countries.

PLC
Public Limited Company
Public limited company (England, Ireland and some other countries) English system law, not the United States) is similar to a Russian open joint stock company: a joint stock company whose shareholders enjoy the right to alienate their shares. At the head of the enterprise - a meeting of shareholders.

Ltd
Limited
Traditional for English speaking countries an abbreviation for limited liability. Widely used in the names of international business companies in offshore zones. This abbreviation is also often used in the names of Delaware limited liability companies to hide their real legal form (to avoid the abbreviation LLC). Limited liability companies in England and Ireland can only use this abbreviation (unless, of course, they fall into the PLC category), but not Inc, S.A. and etc.

Inc.
Incorporated
Pretty much the same as the Limited. Denotes the registration of a company as a corporation. The abbreviation is very widely used in America and throughout the offshore world.

Corp.
Corporation
Corporation (enterprise, authorized capital which is divided into shares, a form of joint-stock company, an association of several firms); the same as Incorporated and Limited.

LLC
Limited Liability Company
A company, society or partnership limited by liability. In a general sense, means a company that has limited liability but does not issue shares to the general public; is liable only for its obligations and only with property belonging to it and is not liable for the obligations of shareholders, just as shareholders are not liable for the obligations of the company. In the United States, as well as in some offshore centers that live according to American laws, it means a special type of enterprise - the middle between a partnership and a corporation.

LDC
Limited Duration Company
Limited company. Such a company can be formed in almost all offshore jurisdictions using the English legal model; in particular, this type is most common in the Cayman Islands. The company is created for a certain period, after which it must be liquidated or re-registered.

IBC
International business company
International business company. Introduced as a special form in some offshore zones (Bahamas, British, Virgin Islands, Belize, etc.). It does not have the right to conduct business in the state in which it is registered, or with its residents. Such companies very rarely use the abbreviation "IBC" in the name, and are more often referred to as "LTD", "Inc." or, in other words, indicating limited liability.

IC
International Company
International company (similar to the International Business Company in some jurisdictions, such as the Cook Islands).

...& Co
and company
If after these words there is no indication of limited liability (for example, the abbreviation Ltd.), then this is a general partnership.

LP
limited partnership
Limited partnership (otherwise called limited partnership). Association of individuals and/or legal entities for the purpose of establishing a commercial enterprise, including at least one partner with full responsibility and at least one limited partner.

SA
Sosiedad Anonima in Spanish, Societe Anonyme in French
In translation - joint-stock company. In France, Belgium, Switzerland and some other countries of continental Europe, the use of this abbreviation is limited only directly to joint-stock companies (enterprises that issue shares for a wide range investors); however, in many offshore locations, ordinary businesses use this abbreviation to indicate their limited liability. Due to dominance in the region Spanish this abbreviation is often used by Panamanian companies. English equivalent - PLC (Public Limited Company), the German equivalent is AG (Aktiengesellschaft).

SARL
Societe a Responsidilite Limitee
In France, it means a limited liability company without the right to freely sell shares. Offshore, this abbreviation is sometimes used in the same way as "SA", simply to indicate limited liability, although very rarely. The Italian equivalent of SARL is SRL.

BV
Vennootschap Met Beperkte Aansparkelij kheid
In the Netherlands and the Netherlands Antilles - a limited liability company. In some offshore areas, this phrase is allowed to be used simply to indicate limited liability.

NV
Naamlose Vennootschap
In Holland, the Netherlands, Belgium, Suriname, the Netherlands Antilles - a joint-stock company (in translation - an unnamed partnership). In some offshore areas, this phrase is allowed to be used simply to indicate limited liability.

AVV
On the island of Aruba, this abbreviation denotes companies that copy the Dutch BV, but are much more flexible and adapted for offshore business. As far as is known, this abbreviation is not used in other offshore zones.

GmbH
Gesellschaft mit beschrakter Haftung
In Germany, Austria, Switzerland - a limited liability company. Some offshore jurisdictions may use this abbreviation simply to indicate limited liability. There are also options mbH(used when the term Gesellschaft is part of the company name), and gGmbH(gemeinn?tzige GmbH) for non-profit companies.

AG
Aktiengesellschaft
In Germany and Austria it means a joint-stock company. Some offshore jurisdictions may use this abbreviation simply to indicate limited liability.

The above abbreviations can be found in various dictionaries, however, it is not recommended to use these options, since the forms of ownership different countries differ significantly. Any form of ownership is reflected in the law of the country in a certain way, i.e. describes the rights and restrictions imposed on the company of the corresponding form of ownership. In short, the use of English abbreviations when translating the forms of ownership of Russian companies is incorrect from a legal point of view and distorts the real meaning of Russian abbreviations. This is also supported by Comments on Letter No. 64-T of the Bank of Russia dated April 20, 2005: SWIFT BIC ( international standard ISO 9362): “form of ownership and organizational and legal form are given in abbreviated form after the name is indicated in capital letters with Latin letters- LLC, ZAO, OAO, AKB.

A weighty argument to this rule can be considered the fact that due to the mismatch of laws, the abbreviation of the form of ownership immediately makes it possible to determine the country of registration of the company: PLC (OJSC) - Great Britain; GmbH (LLC), AG (JSC) – Germany; SpA (JSC) - Italy, A/S (JSC) - Denmark, OY (JSC) - Finland, etc. Therefore, if the company is registered in Russia, due to the use of a non-Russian abbreviation, the country of registration will not be clear.

Sometimes it is logical to indicate in parentheses the name of the company with the analogue of the abbreviation in the target language.

For example: ZAO Motorola - ZAO Motorola (Motorola, JSC)

The abbreviation of the direction of activity of enterprises should also be transliterated, giving a transcript in brackets (if desired).

For example: NPP Spetskabel - NPP Spetskabel (Spetskabel Research and Production Enterprise)

2. The same rule applies to translation English forms ownership, with the only amendment: the forms of ownership are not transliterated, but remain in the original language.

For example : Honda Motor Co., Ltd. - Honda Motor Co., Ltd.

3. As for the names of companies (enterprises), they are subject to practical transcription. Moreover, the form of ownership (field of activity) must be transliterated.

When translating a foreign company name, the following model is recommended:

foreign name (foreign name transcribed in Russian).

For example:

Honda Motor Co., Ltd. - Honda Motor Co., Ltd. (Honda Motor Co., Ltd.)

Hans Weber Maschinenfabrik GmbH(Hans Weber Maschinenfabrik GmbH )

Ferroli S.p.A(Ferroli Spa)

In addition, since this or that company is unique in its kind (a unique name is important for us), its different sound and spelling in different languages(when translating abbreviations and names) will look unsuccessful.

4. Russian names also usually not translated, but transcribed (practical transcription). Although in individual cases you can specify the translation of the company name in brackets. In addition, please note that when translating Russian companies, quotation marks are not used.

For example:

"Helicopters of Russia" - Vertolety Rossii or Vertolety Rossii (Helicopters of Russia)

OAO Topaz - OAO Topaz

Based on all of the above, we can distinguish the following basic rules for the transfer of forms of ownership, areas of work of enterprises and company names.

RULE 1: Abbreviations of Russian forms of ownership should be transliterated, their direct translation using foreign abbreviations is unacceptable.

RULE 2: Abbreviations of foreign forms of ownership when translated into Russian should be left in the original language.

RULE 3: When translating into Russian, the names of foreign companies should either be transcribed (practical transcription) or left in the original language, in some cases with the transcribed version indicated in brackets.

RULE 4: The names of Russian companies should be transcribed (practical transcription), in some cases with the translation in brackets.

Used sources:

1. Big Law Dictionary

P.S. These two letters can lead to a stupor anyone who is not aware of their meaning. Social networks, blogs, mailbox - on every mouse click you can find this uncomplicated abbreviation. So, let's figure out what P.S. means.

Decryption

P.S. came to us from the Latin language, and it stands for "post scriptum". A postscript is a small postscript after the main text. Most often it contains important detail, which the author missed in the process of writing. Speaking plain language, this is when you wrote, wrote, wrote, but missed something very important, and rewriting everything anew or correcting it is long and difficult. It is in this case that P.S. comes to the rescue, translated from Latin meaning "after what is written."

Z.Y. vs P.S.

Users social networks often asked not only the question “what does P.S. VKontakte", but they are also perplexed at the common abbreviation "Z.Y." In fact, everything is simple here: ordinary laziness, which prevents users from switching from Russian to English layout, turned the Latin P.S. into Cyrillic Z.Y. If you look closely, you will notice that on the keyboard, the English p corresponds to the Russian z and, accordingly, s to the letter y. Therefore, the meaning of these abbreviations is exactly the same. Another alteration of Russian-speaking Internet users is the so-called "pysy". With the meaning of this inscription, difficulties will probably not arise.

Find out what IMHO means and when it is appropriate to use this abbreviation. What is trolling and how to behave with trolls, more about this in our article.

Another one possible form postscript is "P.P.S" (post post scriptum). If we turn again to simple explanation difficult situations, then P.P.S. V next case: you wrote, wrote, wrote, missed something important, put a postscript, and then remembered that you missed something else very important. Then the so-called double postscript comes to the rescue, in translation - "after after what is written." “P.S.S” (post sub scriptum) has exactly the same meaning.

P.S. It is necessary to distinguish between Post Scriptum and PostScript, which is a fairly common programming language.

Are you planning to go shopping? Going shopping, buying new things, changing style and image is definitely an exciting and interesting activity. However, the incomprehensible letters that indicate the sizes S M and L, xl, xxl can make some confusion in the process of buying the item you like if you do not know what they mean.

How to determine the size of clothes

We used to think that the main indicator for determining the size is half the girth of the chest. It is important to take measurements correctly. The measuring tape should be placed exactly horizontally, firmly attached to the body without much stretch or sagging, and pass through the most prominent points of the chest.

The person being measured must be wearing underwear or light clothing. summer clothes. In order to decipher the sizes S M L to be as accurate as possible, we recommend that you make additional measurements:

chest girth;

waist circumference;

hip girth.

We measure the waist on a naked body, without pulling in or protruding the stomach, the position of the body should be relaxed and natural. Hips are measured at their widest point.

Keep in mind that if your body type, for example, corresponds to the sizes of T-shirts S M L, this does not mean that skirts or trousers will have the same dimension.

Correspondence of letter designations with digital

There are several generally accepted dimension markings: Russian, European and American. The international letter system is usually used.

In order to decide, S M L is what sizes, let's say right away that the letter designation represents the first letter of the corresponding English word:

S - Small (small);

M - Middle (medium);

L- Large (large).

The letter X (extra) can mean very small (XS) or vice versa very large (HL).

For women

To determine S M L what are these sizes in the Russian manner of designating the size range, it is better to use a special table. The standard European dimensional grid of women's clothing translated into Russian size S M L is as follows:

S - corresponds to 44;

M - for the value of POG 46 cm;

L - means Russian 48.

For men

The S M L clothing size chart for men has a similar look. The principle for determining men's metric values ​​is the same as for women's clothing:

S - corresponds to the 46th;

L stands for 50.

Size menswear S M L, unlike women's, includes such an indicator as neck girth. It is important when choosing and buying classic shirts.

Those who find it easier to navigate in the usual dimensional grid can easily convert European designations into women's Russian size S M L with the help of tables.

How not to make a mistake with the choice of clothes

Despite the fact that there is a generally accepted size chart S M L, the dimensions of clothing from different manufacturers can vary significantly. Sometimes it happens that the winter collection will be more complete than the summer one of the same brand. Please note that the product may be produced for the market of a specific country, and there may be a different metric system in use.

To be sure, it is better to use not average data, but size tables of the brand whose clothes you are going to buy. This information can usually be found on the manufacturer's website.

The surest way, how not to make a mistake when buying clothes, is to try on things in the brand's company store. If you plan to buy clothes in an online store, then it would be right to visit a real outlet and try on several items of the selected brand.

If we summarize the data, we get a summary table of the correspondence between the size range of women's and men's clothing.