Famous cultural figures in Russia XIX - XX century. The artistic culture of Europe in the 19th century in the List of foreign cultural figures of the 19th century

GASHEK Yaroslav

Czech satirist

Born in the family of a school teacher. In his youth, he was distinguished by an explosive character, was an indispensable participant in anti-German speeches in Prague, various scandals and fights.

He has always been the soul of the company, a frequenter of Prague pubs and pubs. In 1902, he graduated with honors from the Trade Academy and got a job at Slavia Bank. In 1903 he quit his job and traveled through the Balkans and Central Europe.

After the publication in 1903 of the collection of poems "May Cries", written jointly with Ladislav Gaek, and receiving money for his notes, which he wrote during his travels, he decided to become a writer. He quickly gained popularity as the most widely read Czech humorist, published in the entertainment sections of daily newspapers and weeklies, humorous magazines, and calendars.

In the mid-1900s, he became close to anarchist circles and took part in rallies and made campaign trips. By 1909 he broke with the anarchist movement.

In 1909, he became editor of the journal Animal World. The calm academic nature of the publication disgusted the cheerful nature of Hasek, and he decided to please the readers with all sorts of discoveries from the life of animals. From under his pen came the mysterious "taboo-taburan" living in pacific ocean, a fly with sixteen wings, eight of which it fans like a fan, domestic silver-gray ghouls, an ancient "idiotosaurus" lizard. Not surprisingly, he was soon fired from his post as editor. In 1912-1915, the collections "The Good Soldier Schweik and Others" were published. amazing stories”, “Sufferings of Pan Tenkrat”, “Guide for foreigners”, “My trade in dogs”.

Then he opened the "Cynological Institute", but in fact just an office for the sale of dogs. Having no money to buy thoroughbred puppies, he caught mongrels, repainted them and forged a pedigree. Such fraud did not last long and ended in court. In general, the name of Hasek often appeared in police protocols: “while intoxicated, he relieved himself of a small need in front of the police department building”; "in a state of light alcohol intoxication damaged two iron fences”; “I lit three street lamps not far from the police station, which had already been extinguished”; "shot from a children's scarecrow." Presenting himself to the police as St. John of Nepomuk, 518 years old, he was placed in a lunatic asylum, where he collected materials for new humoresques. During the First World War, he settled in a Prague hotel and registered himself as “Lev Nikolaevich Turgenev. Born on November 3, 1885 in the city of Kyiv. Lives in Petrograd. Orthodox. Private employee. Came from Moscow. The purpose of the visit is to revise the Austrian General Staff.” Being arrested as a Russian spy, he declared that, as a loyal citizen, he considered it his duty to check “how the state police functions in this difficult time for the country.”

In 1915 he was drafted into the army and enrolled in the 91st Infantry Regiment, located in Ceske Budejovice. Much of what happened to Hasek in the army, he later described in the novel "The Adventures of good soldier Schweik. So, he appeared in the regiment in military uniform, but in a top hat. He was expelled from the school of volunteers for violations of discipline. And the simulation of rheumatism was recognized as an attempted desertion and even sentenced to three years, with departure at the end of the war. So Hasek went to the front in a prison car.

In the army, he received the position of assistant clerk, which allowed him to evade the teachings and continue his work. At the same time, he got along quite closely with the batman Frantisek Strashlipka, who became one of the main prototypes of Schweik. At the front in Galicia, he performed the duties of a lodger, later he was an orderly and a platoon liaison officer. He participated in the battles near Mount Sokal, was awarded a silver medal for bravery and promoted to the rank of corporal. On September 24, 1915, during the counteroffensive of the Russian army in the sector of the 91st regiment, Hasek, together with Strashlipka, voluntarily surrendered.

In captivity, like many other compatriots, he joined the Czechoslovak Legion, which fought on the side of the Russian army. In the summer of 1917, for the battle at Zborov, he was even awarded the St. George Cross of the fourth degree.

After the conclusion of a separate peace between Russia and Germany and the evacuation of the Czech corps to Europe through Vladivostok, he went to Moscow, where he joined the Communist Party. In April 1918 he was sent to Samara, where he campaigned among Czechs and Slovaks against evacuation to France, and also urged them to join the Red Army. By the end of May, Hasek's detachment consisted of 120 fighters who took part in battles with units of the White Army and successfully suppressed an anarchist rebellion in Samara. In July, the field court of the Czechoslovak Legion issued an arrest warrant for Hasek as a traitor to the Czech people. After the White-Czech rebellion, being on the territory controlled by Kolchak, he was forced to hide. Only in September he crossed the front line, and in Simbirsk he again joined the units of the Red Army.

From October 1918 he was engaged in party, political and administrative work at the political department of the 5th Army of the Eastern Front. In December 1918 he was appointed commandant of the city of Bugulma. He took a personal part in the Red Terror. In 1919 he was transferred to Ufa, where he was in charge of the printing house and published the Bolshevik newspaper Our Way. There he married an employee of the printing house A.G. Lvova. Together with the 5th Army, he visited Chelyabinsk, Omsk, Krasnoyarsk, Irkutsk, where he was slightly wounded during an assassination attempt.

In Irkutsk, he was elected to the City Council. At the same time he published the newspapers "Shturm" in German, "Rogam" in Hungarian, "Bulletin of a political worker" in Russian and "Ur" ("Dawn") in Buryat. After the end of the Civil War, Gashek stayed in Irkutsk, where he even bought a house. However, at that time there was a "dry law" in Siberia, which could not but upset the famous drinker. Perhaps this was one of the reasons for returning to their homeland.

In December 1920, together with his wife, he returned to Prague, where, in connection with his service with the Bolsheviks, he was met with extreme hostility. He found himself almost without a livelihood and even sold copies of his books on the streets, accumulated by publishers during the war. Soon he lived again on advances from publishers, wandering from tavern to tavern. In taverns, he wrote his new works, often reading them there. Constant drinking, two typhoid fevers, refusal to follow the recommendations of doctors - all this led to a constant deterioration in Hasek's health.

After returning to Prague, he published collections of short stories "Two Dozen Stories", "Three Men and a Shark" and "Peace Conference and Other Humoresques". At the same time, he began work on the novel The Good Soldier Schweik, which was published in separate editions. The novel was written straight away, and each chapter written was immediately sent to the publisher. Simultaneously with the Czech edition, the translation of the book as an original is published in France, England, and America. By 1922, the first volume of the novel had already gone through four editions, and the second three.

In August 1921 he moved to the small town of Lipnice, where he continued to work actively on a novel about Schweik. But his health steadily deteriorated. Often due to pain had to interrupt work. However, the writer worked to the end. Last time he dictated Schweik just 5 days before his own death. The novel was left unfinished. On January 3, 1923 Hasek died.

In many cities around the world, streets are named after Jaroslav Hasek, and the number of monuments to Josef Schweik even exceeds the number of monuments to Hasek himself. There are several Hasek museums in the world, including in Russia (in Bugulma). In honor of J. Hasek, the asteroid 2734 Hasek is named, and in honor of him famous character- asteroid 7896 Schweik.

Russian art of the first half XIX century. National upsurge associated with the Patriotic War of 1812. War and the Decembrist uprising in Russian culture in the first third of the century. Acute contradictions of time in the 40s. Romantic motifs in literature and art, which is natural for Russia, which has been involved in the pan-European cultural process for more than a century. The path from classicism to critical realism through romanticism.

The increased social role of the artist, the significance of his personality, the right to freedom of creativity, in which social and moral issues; the creation of art societies and special magazines (“Free Society of Lovers of Literature, Sciences and Arts”, “Journal of Fine Arts”, “Society for the Encouragement of Artists”, “Russian Museum”, “Russian Gallery”), provincial art schools. The dominant style of this time is mature, or high, classicism (Russian Empire).

The architecture of the first third of the century is the solution of large urban problems. In St. Petersburg, the layout of the main squares of the capital is being completed: the Palace and the Senate. Moscow was built especially intensively after the fire of 1812. Antiquity in its Greek (and even archaic) version becomes the ideal. The Doric (or Tuscan) order is used, severe and concise. A huge role in the overall appearance of the building is played by sculpture, which has a certain semantic meaning. Color decides a lot, usually the architecture of high classicism is two-tone: columns and stucco statues are white, the background is yellow or earrings. Among the buildings, the main place is occupied by public buildings: theaters, departments, educational institutions, palaces and temples are built much less often.

A. Voronikhin - the largest architect of this time (Kazan Cathedral). A.Zakharov since 1805 - "the chief architect of the Admiralty" (Admiralty as the main ensemble of St. Petersburg). C.Rossi - the leading Petersburg architect of the first third of the 19th century. (“Russian Empire”), “thinking in ensembles”: he turned a palace or theater into a town-planning hub of squares and new streets (Mikhailovsky Palace, now the Russian Museum; the building of the Alexandria Theater; the building of the Senate on the famous Senate Square). "The most rigorous" of all architects of late classicism V. Staso V(Pavlovsky barracks on the Field of Mars, the "Stable department" on the Moika embankment, the regimental cathedral of the Izmailovsky regiment, the triumphal Narva and Moscow gates, interiors Winter Palace after the fire), which everywhere emphasizes the mass, its plastic heaviness, static, impressiveness and heaviness. St. Isaac's Cathedral in St. Petersburg (O.Montferrand) is one of the last outstanding monuments of cult architecture in Europe of the 19th century, which united the best forces of architects, sculptors, painters, masons and foundry workers, an example of classicism losing its harmony, weighting, complication.

The connection between the sculpture of the first half of the century and the development of architecture: the statues of Barclay de Tolly and Kutuzov at the Kazan Cathedral (B. Orlovsky), which gave the symbols of heroic resistance a beautiful architectural frame. (“Guy Playing Money” by N. Pimenov, “Guy Playing Pile” by A. Loganovsky). the other reveals a desire for a more direct and multilateral reflection of reality, it becomes widespread in the second half of the century, but both directions are gradually losing the features of the monumental style.

True successes of painting in romanticism. In the portrait genre, the leading place is occupied by O. Kiprensky (the painting "Dmitry Donskoy on the victory over Mamai", which gave the right to a pensioner's trip abroad; portraits of E. Rostopchin, D. Khvostov, the boy Chelishchev, Colonel of the Life Hussars E. Davydov - a collective image of the hero of the war of 1812).

Romanticism finds its expression in the landscape. S. Shchedrin (“View of Naples on a moonlit night”) was the first to open plein air painting for Russia: he painted sketches in the open air, and completed the picture (“decorated”) in the studio. In the last works of Shchedrin, interest in light and shade effects became more and more distinct. Like the portrait painter Kiprensky and the battle painter Orlovsky, the landscape painter Shchedrin often painted genre scenes.

Refraction of the everyday genre in portraits V. Tropinina (portrait of his son Arseny, portrait of Bulakhov), an artist who was freed from serfdom only at the age of 45. The best of Tropinin's portraits are marked by high artistic perfection, sincerity of images, liveliness and immediacy, which are emphasized by skillful lighting.

Tropinin only introduced a genre element into the portrait. "Father of the Russian household genre" - A. Venetsianov (“Reapers”, “Spring. On arable land”, “Peasant woman with cornflowers”, “Morning of the landowner”), who combined in his work elements of classicism, romanticism, sentimentalism and naturalism, i.e. of all the “living” artistic movements at the beginning of the 19th century. He did not reveal the sharp collisions of the life of a peasant, did not raise the “sick questions” of our time. He painted a patriarchal way of life, but he did not introduce poetry into it from the outside, he did not invent it, but drew it from the people's life itself.

The development of Russian historical painting in the 1930s and 1940s under the sign of romanticism. "The genius of compromise" between the ideals of classicism and the innovations of romanticism - K. Bryullov (“Narcissus” is a sketch that turned into a painting; “The Last Day of Pompeii” is the main work of the artist, showing the greatness and dignity of a person in the face of death). The central figure in the painting of the middle of the century is A. Ivanov (the painting “The Appearance of Christ to the People”, which reflected the artist’s passionate faith in the moral transformation of people, in the perfection of a person who seeks freedom and truth).

The main sources for genre painting of the second half of the century lie in the work of P. Fedotova , who managed to express the spirit of Russia in the 40s. The path from simple everyday writing to the implementation in the images of the problems of Russian life: "Major's matchmaking" (exposing the marriages of impoverished nobles with merchant "money bags"), "The Picky Bride" (a satire on marriage of convenience), “Breakfast of an aristocrat” (denunciation of the emptiness of a secular dude throwing dust in his eyes), “Anchor, more anchor!” (a tragic feeling of the meaninglessness of existence), "The Fresh Cavalier" ... Fedotov's art completes the development of painting in the first half of the 19th century. and opens new stage- the art of critical (democratic) realism.

Russian art of the second half XIX century . Sculpture and architecture developed less rapidly during this period. The means of artistic expressiveness of classicism contradict the tasks set by the architecture of the second half of the 19th century. Historicism (retrospective stylization, eclecticism) as a reaction to the canonicity of the classic style. New types of buildings of the period of capitalism required new and diverse compositional solutions, which architects began to look for in the decorative forms of the past, using Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque, and Rococo motifs.

1840s: fascination with the Renaissance, Baroque, Rococo. In the spirit of neo-baroque and neo-renaissance, some interiors, the Nikolaevsky Palace, are executed. In the 1970s and 1980s, classical traditions in architecture disappeared. The introduction of metal coatings, metal frame structures, brought to life a rational architecture with its new functional and constructive concepts. Technical and functional expediency in the construction of new types of buildings: industrial and administrative, stations, passages, markets, hospitals, banks, bridges, theater and entertainment facilities.

The crisis of monumentalism also affected the development of monumental sculpture. Monuments become too pathetic, fractional in silhouette, detailed (the monument to Catherine II in St. Petersburg) or chamber in spirit (the monument to Pushkin in Moscow). In the second half of the 19th century. easel sculpture develops, mainly genre, narrative, looks like a genre painting translated into sculpture (M. Chizhov "A Peasant in Trouble", V. Beklemishev "Village Love"). The animalistic genre is developing (E. Lansere and A. Aubert), which played a big role in the development of Russian realistic sculpture of small forms.

In the second half of the 19th century, a critical attitude to reality, pronounced civic and moral positions, and an acute social orientation were also characteristic of painting, in which a new artistic system of vision was being formed, expressed in critical realism. A close connection between painting and literature. Artists as illustrators, straightforward interpreters of acute social problems of Russian society.

Soul critical direction in painting V. Perov , who picked up Fedotov’s case and managed to simply and piercingly show the sides of simple everyday life: the unsightly appearance of the clergy (“Rural Procession at Easter”), the hopeless life of Russian peasants (“Seeing the Dead”), the life of the urban poor (“Troika”) and the intelligentsia ( "The Governess's Arrival at the Merchant's House").

The struggle for the right of art to turn to real, real life at the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts ("revolt of 14"). The association of graduates of the Academy who refused to write a programmatic picture on one theme of the Scandinavian epic (there are so many modern problems around!), Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions (1870-1923). These exhibitions were called mobile because they were organized in St. Petersburg, Moscow, the provinces (“going to the people”). Each exhibition of the “Wanderers” is like a huge event. The ideological program of the Partnership: a reflection of life with all its acute social problems, in all its topicality. The art of the Wanderers as an expression of revolutionary democratic ideas in the artistic culture of the second half of the 19th century. The partnership was created on the initiative of Myasoedov, supported by Perov, Ge, Kramskoy, Savrasov, Shishkin , brothers Makovsky. Later they were joined by young artists; Repin, Surikov, Vasnetsov, Yaroshenko. Serov, Levitan, Polenov have been taking part in exhibitions since the mid-80s. The leader and theorist of the Wanderers I. Kramskoy.

Battle genre in the 70-80s. V.Vereshchagin (“The Apotheosis of War”) as being close to the Wanderers (organizationally, he did not belong to them). He arranged his exhibitions in different parts of the world and carried out the idea of ​​wandering very widely.

Democracy in the genre of landscape. A little spectacular outwardly Central Russian landscape, harsh northern nature as main topic painters. A.Savrasov (“Rooks Have Arrived”, “Rye”, “Country Road”) - “the king of the air”, who knew how to find in the simplest those deeply poignant, often sad features that are so strongly felt in the native landscape and so irresistibly affect the soul. ... Another concept landscape in art F. Vasilyeva (“After the Rain”, “Thaw”, “Wet Meadow”) - a “brilliant boy” who discovered the “living sky” for landscape painting, showing with his “Mozartian” fate that life is not counted for the years lived, but for how ready a person is to see, create, love and be surprised. V. Polenov (“Moscow Yard”, “Christ and the Sinner”) dealt a lot with domestic and historical genres, in which the landscape played a huge role. Polenov is a real reformer of Russian painting, who developed it along the path of plein airism. His understanding of the sketch as an independent work of art had a great influence on the painters of the subsequent time. I. Levitan as a successor to the traditions of Savrasov and Vasilyev (“Birch Grove”, “Evening Ringing”, “At the Pool”, “March”, “Golden Autumn”), “a huge, original, original talent”, “the best Russian landscape painter”.

The pinnacle of democratic realism in Russian painting of the second half of the 19th century. rightly considered the work of Repin and Surikov, who each in their own way created a monumental heroic image of the people. I. Repin (“Barge Haulers on the Volga”, “The Procession in the Kursk Province”, “The Arrest of a Propagandist”, “Refusal of Confession”, “They Did Not Expect”) - “a great realist”, who worked in a variety of genres, from folklore to a portrait, who managed to express national features of Russian life are brighter than other painters. His artistic world is whole, because it is "translucent" with one thought, one love - love for Russia. In creativity V. Surikov (“Morning of the Streltsy Execution”, “Menshikov in Berezov”, “Boyar Morozova”, “The Conquest of Siberia by Ermak”, “The Capture of the Snow Town”), historical painting has found its own modern understanding. Surikov, as a "witness of the past," managed to show "the terrible things of the past, presented in his images to mankind the heroic soul of his people." Next to Surikov, in the Russian historical genre of the second half of the 19th century. other artists also worked. In creativity V.Vasnetsova fairy tale, folklore or legendary image prevails (“Alyonushka”, “The Knight at the Crossroads”, “Bogatyrs”).

Russian art of the end XIX –beginning XX century . With the crisis of the populist movement in the 1990s, the "analytical method of nineteenth-century realism" became obsolete. The creative decline of the Wanderers, who went into the "small subject" of an entertaining genre picture. Perov's traditions were preserved at the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture. All types of art - painting, theatre, music, architecture - stand for the renewal of the artistic language, for high professionalism.

For painters of the turn of the century, other ways of expression are characteristic than those of the Wanderers, other forms of artistic creativity - in images that are contradictory, complicated and reflect modernity without illustrativeness and narrative. Artists painfully seek harmony and beauty in a world that is fundamentally alien to both harmony and beauty. That is why many saw their mission in cultivating a sense of beauty. This time of "eves", the expectation of changes in public life, gave rise to many movements, associations, groupings.

The role of association artists "World of Art" in the popularization of domestic and Western European art. "World of Art" (Benoit, Somov, Bakst, Lansere, Golovin, Dobuzhinsky, Vrubel, Serov, Korovin, Levitan, Nesterov, Bilibin, Ryabushkin, Roerich, Kustodiev, Petrov-Vodkin, Malyavin) contributed to the consolidation of artistic forces, the creation of the "Union of Russian Artists ". Significance for the formation of the unification of the personality of Diaghilev, patron, organizer of exhibitions, impresario of Russian ballet and opera tours abroad ("Russian Seasons"). The main provisions of the "World of Art": the autonomy of art, the problems of art form, the main task of art is the education of the aesthetic tastes of the Russian society through acquaintance with works of world art.

The birth of the Art Nouveau style, which affected all the plastic arts, from architecture to graphics, is not an unambiguous phenomenon, it also contains decadent pretentiousness, pretentiousness, designed for bourgeois tastes, but there is also a desire for unity of style that is significant in itself. Features of Art Nouveau: in sculpture - the fluidity of forms, the special expressiveness of the silhouette, the dynamism of the composition; in painting - the symbolism of images, addiction to allegories.

The appearance of Art Nouveau did not mean the collapse of the ideas of wandering, which develops differently: the peasant theme is revealed in a new way (S. Korovin, A. Arkhipov). M. Nesterov , but the image of Rus' appears in his paintings as an ideal, enchanted world, in harmony with nature, but disappeared like the legendary city of Kitezh (“Vision to the youth Bartholomew”).

Another view of the world K. Korovina , who early began to write in the open air. His French landscapes (“Parisian Lights”) are already quite impressionistic writing. Sharp, instantaneous impressions of the life of a big city: quiet streets at different times of the day, objects dissolved in a light-air environment - features reminiscent of the landscapes of Manet, Pissarro. Impressionistic etude, pictorial maestry, artistry preserves Korovin in the portrait and still life, in decorative panels, in theatrical scenery.

Innovator of Russian painting at the turn of the century V.Serov (“The Girl with Peaches”, “The Girl Illuminated by the Sun”) is a whole stage in Russian painting. Portrait, landscape, still life, domestic, historical painting; oil, gouache, tempera, charcoal - it is difficult to find genres in which Serov would not work. A special theme in his work is peasant, in which there is no itinerant social sharpness, but there is a sense of the beauty and harmony of peasant life, admiration for the healthy beauty of the Russian people.

"Herald of Other Worlds" M. Vrubel , which caused bewilderment as a person and indignation as an artist ("Pan", "The Swan Princess", "Seated Demon", "Fortuneteller", "Lilac"). The first symbolist (?), "universal in art", the search for which is compared with the method of Leonardo da Vinci, Vrubel very quickly "falls out" of "traditional" painting, strikes with an original, full of mystery and almost demonic power in the manner of painting, which turned out to be prophetic for new artistic directions of the 20th century ...

"Miriskussnik" N. Roerich . A connoisseur of the philosophy and ethnography of the East, the archaeologist-scientist Roerich had in common with the "World of Art" love for retrospection, for pagan Slavic and Scandinavian antiquity ("Messenger", "The Elders Converge", "Sinister"). Roerich was closest to the philosophy and aesthetics of Russian symbolism, but his art did not fit into the existing trends, because, in accordance with the artist's worldview, he appealed to all mankind with an appeal for a friendly union of all peoples. Later, historical themes give way to religious legends ("Heavenly Battle"). His decorative panel "The Battle of Kerzhents" was exhibited during the performance of a fragment of the same name from Rimsky-Korsakov's opera "The Legend of the Invisible City of Kitezh and the Maiden Fevronia" in the Parisian "Russian Seasons".

In the second generation of the "World of Art" one of the most gifted artists was B. Kustodiev , a student of Repin, who is characterized by stylization, but this is a stylization of a popular popular print (“Fairs”, “Shrovetide”, “Balagany”, “Merchant for tea”).

1903, the formation of the association "Union of Russian Artists" , which includes figures from the "World of Art" - Benois, Bakst, Somov, Dobuzhinsky, Serov, and the participants in the first exhibitions were Vrubel, Borisov-Musatov. The initiators of the creation of the association were Moscow artists associated with the "World of Art", but weighed down by the programmatic aesthetics of Petersburgers. K. Korovin was considered the leader of the "Union".

1910, creation of the association "Jack of Diamonds" (P. Konchalovsky, I. Mashkov, A. Lentulov R. Falk, M. Larionov), who spoke out against the vagueness, untranslatability, nuances of the symbolic language of the "Blue Rose" and the aesthetic stylism of the "World of Art". "Knaves of Diamonds" professed a clear construction of the picture, emphasized the objectivity of the form, intensity, full-sounding color. Still life as a favorite genre of "jacks".

"Lonely and unique" creativity P.Filonova , who set a goal to comprehend the metaphysics of the universe by means of painting, creating crystal-like forms as the primary elements of the universe ("Feast of Kings", "Holy Family"). Vitality of national traditions, great ancient Russian painting in creativity K. Petrova-Vodkina , an artist-thinker (“Bathing the Red Horse” as a pictorial metaphor, “Girls on the Volga” - an orientation towards the traditions of Russian art).

The era of highly developed industrial capitalism and changes in the architecture of the city. New types of buildings: factories, stations, shops, banks, cinemas. New building materials - reinforced concrete and metal structures, which allow covering gigantic spaces, making huge storefronts.

The art of the pre-revolutionary years in Russia is marked by the unusual complexity and inconsistency of artistic searches, hence the groupings replacing each other with their own program settings and stylistic sympathies. But along with the experimenters in the field of abstract forms in the Russian art of that time, the "World of Art" and "Blue Bearers", "allies", "Knaves of Diamonds", artists of the neoclassical trend simultaneously continued to work.

Adams John

Adams, John (November 30, 1735-07/04/1826) - 2nd President of the United States, successor to George Washington, in contrast to which can be attributed not so much to political practitioners as to political theorists. Born in Massachusetts to a farmer's family, he graduated from Harvard University, practiced law, and became one of the most popular lawyers in Boston.

Adams John Quincy

Adams, John Quincy Adams (07/11/1767-23/02/1848) - 6th President of the United States. Studied in Holland, France, USA (Harvard). In con. In the 18th and early 19th centuries, he joined the federalists (as a federalist he criticized T. Payne's pamphlet "The Rights of Man"), but in 1807 he broke with them. US Envoy to Holland and Prussia (1794-1801); congressman (1802); Senator from Massachusetts (1803-1808); the first US envoy to Russia (1809-1814). Through Adams, Alexander I in 1813 offered Russian mediation in settling the Anglo-American conflict.

Admiral Nelson Horatio

Nelson, Horatio (129.09.1758-21.10.1805) - English naval commander.

Horatio Nelson was born into a priestly family in north Norfolk. At the age of 12 he went to the Navy. In 1773, as part of an expedition, Horatio sailed the northern seas. His military naval service began during the war with France. In 1793

Nelson was appointed captain of the 64-gun ship Agamemnon. As part of the English squadron, Agamemnon guarded the Mediterranean Sea from French ships. Already in the first months of the war, the best traits of Nelson's character appeared - courage and strategic talent. On February 14, 1797, he participated in the battle of St. Vincent, did a lot for the victory of the English fleet, and became a rear admiral. In one of the battles, Horatio was wounded and lost his right arm.

Andrassy Gyula

Andrassy, ​​Gyula, Count (03.03.1823-18.02.1890) - Hungarian politician and diplomat. After the defeat of the Hungarian revolution of 1848-1849, in which he took an active part, Andrássy emigrated to France. Gyula was sentenced to death in absentia, but subsequently amnestied and in 1858 returned to Hungary.

Benjamin Disraeli

Disraeli, Benjamin (21.12.1804-19.04.1881) - famous British statesman and political figure, writer. The son of the writer I. Disraeli, a Jewish emigrant who converted to Christianity. In the works "Vivian Gray", "The Young Duke" and others, Disraeli skillfully noticed the peculiarities of the political life of the country and advocated conservative principles (protection of the crown, church, aristocracy).

Blanquis Louis Auguste

Blanqui, Louis Auguste (02/08/1805-01/01/1881) - French revolutionary, utopian communist. Louis was educated at the Lycée Charlemagne in Paris. Passion for republican-democratic ideas led him into the ranks of opponents of the Restoration regime (1814-1830). An active participant in the July Revolution of 1830, the Republican Blanqui became an implacable opponent of the Louis Philippe monarchy. In the 1930s was the organizer and leader of secret republican societies that advocated the creation of a democratic republic and the destruction of exploitation.

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Western European Art of the 18th–19th Centuries

18th century in Western Europe, the last stage of the long transition from feudalism to capitalism. In the middle of the century, the process of primitive accumulation of capital was completed, a struggle was waged in all spheres of social consciousness, revolutionary situation. Later, it led to the dominance of the classical forms of developed capitalism. Over the course of a century, a gigantic breakdown of all social and state foundations, concepts and criteria for evaluating the old society was carried out. A civilized society arose, a periodical press appeared, political parties were formed, a struggle was going on for the liberation of man from the shackles of a feudal-religious worldview.

In the visual arts, the importance of directly displaying life increased. The sphere of art expanded, it became an active spokesman for liberation ideas, filled with topicality, fighting spirit, denounced the vices and absurdities of not only feudal, but also the emerging bourgeois society. It also put forward a new positive ideal of an unfettered personality of a person, free from hierarchical ideas, developing individual abilities and at the same time endowed with a noble sense of citizenship. Art became national, appealed not only to the circle of refined connoisseurs, but to a broad democratic environment.

The main trends in the social and ideological development of Western Europe in the 18th century. have been uneven in different countries. If in England the industrial revolution that took place in the middle of the 18th century consolidated the compromise between the bourgeoisie and the nobility, then in France the anti-feudal movement had a more massive character and was preparing a bourgeois revolution. Common to all countries was the crisis of feudalism, its ideology, the formation of a broad social movement - the Enlightenment, with its cult of the primary untouched Nature and Reason protecting it, with its criticism of the modern corrupted civilization and the dream of the harmony of beneficent nature and a new democratic civilization gravitating towards the natural. condition.

18th century - the age of Reason, all-destroying skepticism and irony, the age of philosophers, sociologists, economists; the exact natural sciences, geography, archeology, history, and materialistic philosophy, connected with technology, developed. Invading the mental life of the era, scientific knowledge created the foundation for accurate observation and analysis of reality for art. Enlighteners proclaimed the goal of art to imitate nature, but ordered, improved nature (Didero, A. Pope), cleared by reason from the harmful effects of a man-made civilization created by an absolutist regime, social inequality, idleness and luxury. The rationalism of the philosophical and aesthetic thought of the 18th century, however, did not suppress the freshness and sincerity of feeling, but gave rise to a striving for proportionality, grace, and harmonious completeness of the artistic phenomena of art, from architectural ensembles to applied art. Enlighteners attached great importance in life and art to feeling - the focus of the noblest aspirations of mankind, a feeling that longs for purposeful action, containing a force that revolutionizes life, a feeling that can revive the primordial virtues " natural man"(Defoe, Rousseau, Mercier), following the natural laws of nature.

Rousseau's aphorism "A man is great only in his feelings" expressed one of the remarkable aspects of the social life of the 18th century, which gave rise to an in-depth, refined psychological analysis in a realistic portrait and genre. The lyrical landscape is permeated with poetry of feelings (Gainsborough, Watteau, J. Bernet, Robert), “ lyric novel”, “poems in prose” (Rousseau, Prevost, Marivaux, Fielding, Stern, Richardson), it reaches its highest expression in the rise of music (Handel, Bach, Gluck, Haydn, Mozart, opera composers Italy). Heroes works of art painting, graphics, literature and theater of the XVIII century. on the one hand, “little people” became - people, like everyone else, placed in the usual conditions of the era, not spoiled by prosperity and privileges, subject to ordinary natural movements of the soul, content with modest happiness. Artists and writers admired their sincerity, naive immediacy of the soul, close to nature. On the other hand, the focus is on the ideal of an emancipated civilized intellectual man, born of enlightenment culture, analysis of his individual psychology, conflicting mental states and feelings with their subtle nuances, unexpected impulses and reflective moods.

Acute observation, a refined culture of thought and feeling are characteristic of all artistic genres of the 18th century. Artists sought to capture everyday life situations of various shades, original individual images, gravitated towards entertaining narratives and enchanting spectacle, sharp conflicting actions, dramatic intrigues and comedic plots, sophisticated grotesque, buffoonery, graceful pastorals, gallant festivities.

New problems were also put forward in architecture. The importance of church building has decreased, and the role of civil architecture has increased, exquisitely simple, updated, freed from excessive impressiveness. In some countries (France, Russia, partly Germany) the problems of planning the cities of the future were solved. Architectural utopias were born (graphic architectural landscapes - D.B. Piranesi and the so-called "paper architecture"). The type of private, usually intimate residential building and urban ensembles of public buildings became characteristic. However, in the art of the XVIII century. compared with previous eras, the synthetic perception and completeness of the coverage of life have decreased. The former connection of monumental painting and sculpture with architecture was broken, the features of easel painting and decorativeness intensified in them. The subject of a special cult was the art of everyday life, decorative forms. At the same time, interaction and mutual enrichment have increased. various kinds art. The achievements acquired by one art form were used more freely by others. Thus, the influence of the theater on painting and music was very fruitful.

Art of the 18th century went through two stages. The first lasted until 1740–1760. It is characterized by a modification of the late baroque forms in decorative style rococo. The originality of the art of the first half of the XVIII century. - in a combination of witty and mocking skepticism and sophistication. This art, on the one hand, is refined, analyzing the nuances of feelings and moods, striving for elegant intimacy, restrained lyricism, on the other hand, gravitating towards the “philosophy of pleasure”, towards fabulous images of the East - Arabs, Chinese, Persians. Simultaneously with the Rococo, tendencies of a realistic nature developed - for some masters they acquired a sharply accusatory character (Hogarth, Swift). The fight was open artistic directions inside national schools. The second stage is connected with the deepening of ideological contradictions, the growth of self-consciousness, the political activity of the bourgeoisie and the masses. At the turn of the 1760s-1770s. The Royal Academy in France opposed rococo art and tried to revive the ceremonial, idealizing style of academic art of the late 17th century. The gallant and mythological genres gave way to the historical genre with plots borrowed from Roman history. They were called upon to emphasize the greatness of the monarchy, which had lost its authority, in accordance with the reactionary interpretation of the ideas of "enlightened absolutism."

Representatives of advanced thought turned to the heritage of antiquity. In France, the comte de Caylus opened the scientific era of research in this area ("Collection of Antiquities", 7 volumes, 1752-1767). In the middle of the XVIII century. German archaeologist and art historian Winckelmann ("History of the Art of Antiquity", 1764) urged artists to return to "noble simplicity and calm grandeur ancient art which bears in itself a reflection of the freedom of the Greeks and Romans of the era of the Republic. The French philosopher Diderot found plots in ancient history that denounced tyrants and called for an uprising against them. Classicism arose, contrasting the decorativeness of Rococo with natural simplicity, the subjective arbitrariness of passions - the knowledge of patterns real world, sense of proportion, nobility of thought and deeds. Artists first studied ancient greek art on again open monuments. The proclamation of an ideal, harmonious society, the primacy of duty over feeling, the pathos of reason are common features of classicism of the 17th and 18th centuries. However, the classicism of the 17th century, which arose on the basis of national unification, developed in the conditions of the flourishing of a noble society. For classicism of the XVIII century. characterized by an anti-feudal orientation. It was intended to unite the progressive forces of the nation to fight against absolutism. Outside of France, classicism did not have the revolutionary character that it had in the early years of the French Revolution.

Simultaneously with classicism, experiencing its impact, the left-wing trend continued to live. Rationalist tendencies were outlined in it: artists sought to generalize life phenomena.

In the second half of the XVIII century. sentimentalism was born with its cult of feeling and passion, worship of everything simple, naive, sincere, a pre-romantic trend in art associated with it arose, interest in the Middle Ages and folk art forms arose. Representatives of these movements asserted the value of the noble and active feelings of a person, revealed the drama of his conflicts with the environment, prompting him to interfere in real public affairs in the name of the triumph of justice. They paved the way "to the knowledge of the human heart and magical art to present to the eyes the origin, development and collapse of a great passion ”(Lessing) and expressed the growing need for agitated, pathetic art.

Throughout the 19th century capitalism becomes the dominant formation not only in Europe but also on other continents. Expressing the advanced ideas of the time, the realistic art of the XIX century. asserted the aesthetic values ​​of reality, glorified the beauty of real nature and the working man. From the extra-left art of previous centuries realism XIX V. differed in that it directly reflected the main contradictions of the era, the social conditions of life of the people. Critical positions determined the basis of the method of realistic art in the 19th century.

Various areas developed unevenly culture XIX V. World literature (Hugo, Balzac, Stendhal), music (Beethoven, Chopin, Wagner) reaches the highest heights. As far as architecture and applied arts, then after the rise that defined the so-called Empire style, both of these art forms are in crisis. There is a disintegration of monumental forms, stylistic unity as an integral art system covering all types of art. The easel forms of painting, graphics, and partly sculpture, which gravitate towards monumental forms in their best manifestations, receive the most complete development.

With national identity in the art of any capitalist country, common features are enhanced: a critical assessment of the phenomena of life, historicism of thinking, that is, a deeper objective understanding driving forces social development of both past historical stages and the present. One of the main conquests of art of the XIX century. - the development of historical themes, in which for the first time the role of not only individual heroes, but also the masses of the people is revealed, the historical environment is recreated more specifically. All types of portraiture are widely used, household genre, a landscape with a pronounced national character. The heyday is experiencing satirical graphics.

With the victory of capitalism, the big bourgeoisie becomes the main interested force in limiting and suppressing the realistic and democratic tendencies of art. Creations of leading figures European culture Constable, Goya, Gericault, Delacroix, Daumier, Courbet,
E. Manet were often persecuted. The exhibitions were filled with polished works of the so-called salon artists, that is, those who occupied a dominant place in art salons. To please the tastes and demands of bourgeois customers, they cultivated superficial descriptions, erotic and entertaining motives, the spirit of apology for bourgeois foundations and militarism.

Back in the 1860s. leading thinkers of our time noted that "capitalist production is hostile to certain branches of spiritual production, such as art and poetry." Art interests the bourgeoisie mainly either as profitable investment funds (collecting), or as a luxury item. Of course, there were collectors with true understanding art and its purpose, but these were units, exceptions to the rules. In general, acting as a trendsetter and the main consumer of art, the bourgeoisie often imposed its limited understanding of art on artists. The development of large-scale mass production with its impersonality and reliance on the market entailed the suppression of creativity. The division of labor in capitalist production cultivates a one-sided development of the individual and deprives the ore itself of creative integrity.

Democratic line of art of the 19th century. at the first stage - from the Great French Revolution of 1789-1794. until 1815 (the time of the national liberation struggle of peoples against Napoleonic aggression) - is formed in the fight against the remnants of the noble artistic culture, as well as manifestations of the limitations of bourgeois ideology. The highest achievements of art at that time were associated with the revolutionary pathos of the masses, who believed in the victory of the ideals of freedom, equality and fraternity. This is the heyday of revolutionary classicism and the birth of romantic and realistic art.

The second stage, from 1815 to 1849, falls at the time of the establishment of the capitalist system in most European countries. In advanced democratic art, this stage is the period of the highest flowering of revolutionary romanticism and the formation of realistic art.

With the aggravation of class contradictions between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, reaching its apogee during the Paris Commune (1871), the antagonism between bourgeois values ​​and democratic culture is even more pronounced. At the end of the XIX century. criticism modern society both in literature and in works of fine art, along with attempts to move away from the flagrant imperfection of the world into the sphere of "art for art's sake".

RUSSIA

Russian literature of the late 18th - 19th centuries. developed under difficult conditions. The Russian Empire was economically one of the backward countries of Europe. 18th century reforms Peter I and Catherine II were primarily concerned with military affairs.

If in the 19th century Russia still remained an economically backward country, but in the field of literature, music and fine arts, it was already at the forefront.

LITERATURE OF THE BEGINNING OF THE CENTURY

The most educated estate in Russia was the nobility. Most of the cultural figures of this time are from the nobility or people, one way or anotherassociated with noble culture. The ideological struggle in literature at the beginning of the century was between the Conversation of Lovers of the Russian Word society (Derzhavin, Shirinsky-Shikhmatov, Shakhovskoy, Krylov, Zakharov, etc.), which united conservative noblemen, and radical writers who were part of the Arzamas circle (Zhukovsky, Batyushkov, Vyazemsky, Pushkin and others). The first and second wrote their works in the spirit of classicism and romanticism, but the poets of "Arzamas" more actively fought for the new art, defended civil and democratic pathos in poetry.

In the early 1920s, poets and writers associated with the Decembrist movement or ideologically close to it played an important role in literature. After the defeat of the Decembrist uprising, in the era of the dull Nikolaev reaction, the most famous writers were F. Bulgarin and N. Grech, who spoke in their organs - the newspaper "Northern Bee" and the magazine "Son of the Fatherland". Both of them opposed the new trends in Russian literature, advocated by Pushkin, Gogol and others. With all this, they were writers not without talent.

The most popular works of Thaddeus Bulgarin (1789 - 1859) were the didactic and moral descriptive novels Ivan Vyzhigin (1829) and Pyotr Ivanovich Vyzhigin (1831), which became bestsellers during the author's lifetime, but they were completely forgotten by contemporaries; melodramatic effects abound in his historical novels "Dmitry the Pretender" and "Mazepa".

The most significant creation of Nikolai Grech (1787 - 1867) was the adventurous moral descriptive novel The Black Woman (1834), written in the spirit of romanticism. Grech also wrote an epistolary novel"Bytrip to Germany "(1836)," Experience brief history Russian Literature" (1822) - the country's first work on the history of Russian literature - and several other manuals on the Russian language.

The greatest prose writer of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, writer and historiographer Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin (1766 - 1826) was no stranger to liberalism when it came to abstract ideas that did not affect the Russian order. His "Letters from a Russian Traveler" played an important role in acquainting readers with Western European life and culture. The most famous of his stories - "Poor Liza" (1792) tells touching story love of a nobleman and a peasant woman. “And peasant women know how to feel,” this maxim contained in the story testified to the humane direction of the views of its author.

At the beginning of the XIX century. Karamzin writes the most significant work of his life - the multi-volume "History of the Russian State", in which, following Tatishchev, he interprets the events of the history of the East Slavic peoples in the spirit of the existing Russian monarchy and elevates the historical justification of Moscow's seizure of the lands of its neighbors to the rank of the state ideology of the Romanov tsar dynasty.

The works of Vasily Zhukovsky (1783 - 1852) constituted an important stage in the development of romantic lyrics. Zhukovsky experienced a deep disappointment with the Enlightenment of the 18th century, and this disappointment turned his thoughts to the Middle Ages. Like a true romantic, Zhukovsky considered the blessings of life to be transient and saw happiness only in immersion in inner world person. As a translator, Zhukovsky opened Western European romantic poetry to the Russian reader. Particularly remarkable are his translations from Schiller and the English Romantics.

The lyrics of K. N. Batyushkov (1787 - 1855), in contrast to the romanticism of Zhukovsky, were earthly, sensual, imbued with a bright view of the world, harmonious and graceful.

The main merit of Ivan Krylov (1769 - 1844) is the creation of a classic fable in Russian. Krylov took the plots of his fables from other fabulists, primarily from Lafontaine, but at the same time he always remained a deeply national poet, reflecting in fables the features of the national character and mind, bringing his fable to high naturalness and simplicity.

The Decembrists wrote their works in the spirit of classicism. They turned to the heroic images of Cato and Brutus and to the motives of romantic national antiquity, to the freedom-loving traditions of Novgorod and Pskov, the cities of Ancient Russia. The largest poet among the Decembrists was Kondraty Fedorovich Ryleev (1795 - 1826). The author of tyrannical poems (“Citizen”, “To a temporary worker”) also wrote a series of patriotic “Dooms” and created a romantic poem “Voinarovsky”, which depicts the tragic fate of a Ukrainian patriot.

Alexander Griboyedov (1795 - 1829) entered Russian literature as the author of one work - the comedy "Woe from Wit" (1824), in which there is no intrigue in the sense that French comedians understood it, and there is no happy ending. The comedy is built on the opposition of Chatsky to other characters that form the Famus circle, the noble society of Moscow. The struggle of a man of advanced views - against the bar, parasites and depraved people who have lost their national dignity and crawl before everything French, stupid martinets and persecutors of enlightenment ends in the defeat of the hero. But the public pathos of Chatsky's speeches reflected the full force of indignation that has accumulated among the radical Russian youth, who advocate reforms in society.

Griboyedov wrote several more plays together with P. Katenin (“Student”, “Feigned Infidelity”), ideological content which was directed against the poets of Arzamas.

PUSHKIN AND LERMONTOV

Alexander Pushkin (1799 - 1837) became a turning point for Russian literature, separating the new literature from the old. His work determined the development of all Russian literature until the end of the century. Pushkin elevated Russian poetic art to the heights of European poetry, becoming the author of works of unsurpassed beauty and perfection.

In many ways, Pushkin's genius was determined by the circumstance of his teaching at the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum, which opened in 1811, a higher educational institution for the children of the nobles, from whose walls many poets of the “golden era” of Russian poetry came out during these years (A. Delvig, V. Küchelbecker, E. Baratynsky and others). Brought up on the French classicism of the XVII and educational literature XVIII c., he is at the beginning of his creative way passed through the influence of romantic poetry and, enriched by its artistic conquests, rose to the level of high realism.

In his youth, Pushkin wrote lyrical poems in which he glorified the enjoyment of life, love and wine. The lyrics of these years breathe wit, imbued with an epicurean attitude to life inherited from poetry.XVIIIV. At the very beginning of the 1920s, new motifs appeared in Pushkin's poems: he glorified freedom and laughed at the rulers. His brilliant political lyrics caused the poet's exile to Bessarabia. During this period, Pushkin created his romantic poems "Prisoner of the Caucasus" (1820 - 1821), "Robber Brothers" (1821 - 1822), "The Fountain of Bakhchisarai" (1821 - 1823) and "Gypsies" (1824 - 1825).

Pushkin's subsequent work is influenced by the published "History of the Russian State" by Karamzin and the ideas of the Decembrists. In an effort to more clearly show the Russian Emperor Alexander I, and thenNicholas II "experience" in the reign of Russian rulers, believing that reforms in the state should come from the king, when the people are silent, Pushkin creates the historical tragedy "Boris Godunov" (1824 - 1825), dedicated to the "era of many rebellions" of the early 17th century. And at the end of the 20s he wrote the poem "Poltava" (1828), the historical novel "Arap of Peter the Great" (not finished) and a number of poems, referring to the image of the reformer tsar Peter I, seeing in this image Emperor Nicholas I, whose mission is to promote new reforms in Russia, i.e. become an enlightened monarch.

Having lost faith in his aspirations to change the will of the tsar, who sent the Decembrists to the gallows and into exile, Pushkin, in the spirit of Byron's work "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage", is working on one of his best creations - a novel in verse "Eugene Onegin" (1823 - 1831). Onegin gives a broad picture of the life of Russian society, and the lyrical digressions of the novel reflect in many ways the personality of the poet himself, sometimes thoughtful and sad, sometimes caustic and playful. Pushkin in his creation reveals the image of a contemporary who has not found himself in life.

In the next significant creation, Little Tragedies (30s), the poet, using images and plots known from European literature, draws a clash of impudent human personality with laws, tradition and authority. Pushkin also turns to prose (the story "The Queen of Spades", the cycle "Tales of Belkin", "Dubrovsky"). Relying on artistic principles Walter Scott, Pushkin writes " captain's daughter”(1836) and in the actual events of the peasant uprising of the 18th century led by Emelyan Pugachev, he weaves the life of the protagonist, whose fate is closely connected with major social events.

Pushkin is strongest in his lyrical poems. The unique beauty of his lyrics deeply reveals the inner world of a person. In terms of depth of feeling and classical harmony of form, his poems, together with Goethe's lyric poems, belong to the best creations of world poetry.

The name of Pushkin is associated not only with the high flowering of Russian poetry, but also with the formation of the Russian literary language. The language of his works becamethe norm of the modern Russian language.

In the shadow of Pushkin's poetry remained no less excellent poets who lived in his time, who made up the "golden age" of Russian poetry. Among them were the fiery lyricist N.M. Yazykov, the author of witty feuilletons in verses P.A. Vyazemsky, the master of elegiac poetry E.A. Baratynsky. Fyodor Tyutchev (1803 - 1873) stands apart from them. As a poet, he achieves an amazing unity of thought and feeling. Tyutchev devotes his lyrical miniatures to depicting the connection between man and nature.

Mikhail Lermontov (1814 - 1841) as a poet was no less talented than Pushkin. His poetry is marked by the pathos of the denial of contemporary reality, in many poems and poems slip motifs of either loneliness and bitter disappointment in life, or rebellion, a bold challenge, waiting for a storm. Images of rebels seeking freedom and rebelling against social injustice often appear in his poems (Mtsyri, 1840; Song about the merchant Kalashnikov, 1838). Lermontov is a poet of action. It is precisely for inaction that he castigates his generation, incapable of struggle and creative work (the Duma).

At the center of Lermontov's most significant works is a romantic image of a proud, lonely Personality, looking for strong sensations in the struggle. Such are Arbenin (drama "Masquerade", 1835 - 1836), Demon ("Demon", 1829 - 1841) and Pechorin ("Hero of Our Time", 1840). Lermontov's works sharply reflect all the complexity of social life and the contradictory nature of the problems of Russian culture raised by the progressive people of Russia in the first half of the 19th century.

LITERATURE 30 - 60-ies

Next milestone in the history of Russian literature was the work of Nikolai Gogol (1809 - 1852). At the beginning of his creative activity he acted as the author of the romantic poem Hans Küchelgarten (1827). In the future, he writes exclusively prose. The first prose works, written based on Ukrainian folklore in an ironic, cheerful tone, bring success to the writer (collection of stories “Evenings on a Farmnear Dikanka. In the new collection "Mirgorod", the writer continues the successfully started theme, significantly expanding the area. Already in the story from this collection “On how Ivan Ivanovich and Ivan Nikiforovich quarreled,” Gogol departs from romance, showing the dominance of vulgarity and petty interests in modern Russian life.

"Petersburg Tales" depicts Gogol's contemporary big city with its social contrasts. One of these stories, "The Overcoat" (1842), had a particular influence on subsequent literature. Sympathetically portraying the fate of a downtrodden and disenfranchised petty official, Gogol opened the way for all democratic Russian literature from Turgenev, Grigorovich and early Dostoevsky to Chekhov.

In the comedy The Inspector General (1836), Gogol gives a deep and merciless exposure of the bureaucratic camarilla, its lawlessness and arbitrariness, which permeated all aspects of the life of Russian society. Gogol rejected the love affair traditional in comedies and built his work on the image of social relations.

Nikolai Chernyshevsky's (1828 - 1889) novel What Is To Be Done? was associated with the ideas of socialist utopias. (1863). In it, Chernyshevsky showed intellectuals striving to change life in Russia for the better.

In the person of Nikolai Nekrasov (1821 - 1878), Russian literature put forward a poet of great ideological depth and artistic maturity. In many poems, such as "Frost, Red Nose" (1863), "To whom it is good to live in Russia" (1863 - 1877), the poet showed not only the suffering of people from the people, but also their physical and moral beauty , revealed their ideas about life, their tastes. Nekrasov's lyrical poems reveal the image of the poet himself, an advanced citizen writer who feels the suffering of the people, chivalrously devoted to him.

Alexander Ostrovsky (1823 - 1886) raised Russian drama to the heights of world fame. The main "heroes" of his works are merchants-entrepreneurs born under new capitalist relations, who came out of the ranks of society, but remained just as ignorant, entangled in prejudices, prone to tyranny, absurd and funny whims (the plays "Thunderstorm", "Dowry", "Talents and fans”, “Forest”, etc.). However, the nobility - an obsolete class - Ostrovsky also does not idealize, it also constitutes the "dark kingdom" of Russia.

In the 40s and 50s, the talent of such masters of the word as Ivan Turgenev (1818 - 1883) and Ivan Goncharov (1812 - 1891) was revealed. Both writers in their works show the life of the "superfluous people" of society. However, if Turgenev is a man who denies everything sublime in life (the novels Fathers and Sons, Rudin").

LITERATURE OF THE PEOPLES OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE

Russian Empire by the beginning of the 70s of the XIX century. was a huge multinational country. It is clear that the culture of the ruling nation, expressed mainly by noble literature and art, had a significant impact on the cultural development of other peoples of Russia.

The Russian cultural factor for Ukrainians and Belarusians played the same role that the Polish factor played in the period after the Union of Lublin in 1569 united the lands of the Crown of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania into the Commonwealth - the most talented representatives of these peoples contributed to the growth of the art of the neighboring nation, occupying a dominant position in society, for example, the main figures of Polish culture of the late 18th - early 19th centuries. left Belarus and Ukraine (F. Bogomolets, F. Knyazkin, A. Narushevich, A. Mitskevich, Yu. Slovatsky, I. Krasitsky, V. Syrokomlya, M.K. Oginsky and others). After the accession of Ukraine and Belarus to the Russian Empire, people from these places began to raise Russian culture (N. Gogol, N. Kukolnik, F. Bulgarin, M. Glinka, N. Kostomarov, etc.).

Despite the enormous influence of the Russian language, in Ukraine at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th century,the premises of the emergence of nationally minded nobles who realized that the Ukrainian language, which is spoken exclusively by the uneducated common people, can be used to create original works. At this time, the study of the history of the Ukrainian people and its oral art. The “History of Little Russia” by N. Bantysh-Kamensky appeared, the “History of the Russ” went in handwritten lists, where an unknown author considered the Ukrainian people separately from the Russian and argued that it was Ukraine, and not Russia, that was the direct heir of Kievan Rus.

An important growth factor national consciousness Ukrainians played the opening in 1805 in Kharkov University. An important indicator of the viability of the Ukrainian language was the quality and variety of literature created in it. Ivan Petrovich Kotlyarevsky (1769 - 1838) was the first to turn to the living folk Ukrainian language, widely using the oral art of his native people. Virgil's Aeneid (1798), which he reworked in a burlesque style, as well as the plays Natalka-Poltavka and The Sorcerer Soldier (in the original, The Muscovite Charmer), were distinguished by their masterful depiction of Ukrainian folk life.

First prose works the sentimental stories of Kharkiv resident Hryhoriy Kvitka (1778 - 1843), who acted under the pseudonym "Grytsko Osnovyanenko" (the story "Marusya", the comedy "Shelmenko-batman", etc.), appeared in modern Ukrainian in 1834. Another Kharkiv resident Levko Borovikovsky laid the foundation for the Ukrainian ballad.

The process of formation of new Ukrainian literature and the formation of the Ukrainian literary language was completed by the work of the great national poet, thinker and revolutionary Taras ShevchenkoO. The poet began to write his poems not for the nobles in Russian, as many of his compatriots did, but exclusively for his people.

Shevchenko's biography has become for compatriots a symbol of the tragic national fate. Born a serf, by the will of circumstances he ended up with his master in St. Petersburg, where several representatives of the aristocratic circle helped the talented young artist in 1838.redeemat will. Shevchenko receives an excellent education. Communication with many Ukrainian and Russian artists and writers broadened the horizons of the young man, and in 1840 he published his first book of poems "Kobzar", in which he refers to the history of Ukraine.

Shevchenko angrily stigmatizes the Cossack hetmans who collaborated with Moscow, Khmelnitsky also gets it (in Shevchenko, this is both a “brilliant rebel” and the culprit of the fatal alliance with Russia for Ukraine, which cost her the loss of independence). The poet denounces the arbitrariness of the feudal lords and, arguing with Pushkin, who sang of the monarchs Peter I and Catherine II, reveals the despotism of the Russian tsars, who are guilty of the deplorable state of his homeland, and openly calls them tyrants and executioners (poems "Naymichka", "Kavkaz", "Dream" , "Katerina", etc.), sings of popular uprisings (the poem "Gaidamaki") and the exploits of the people's avengers (the poem "Varnak").

Shevchenko considered Ukraine's desire for freedom as part of the struggle for justice not only for his own people, but also for other peoples under national and social oppression.

The processes of awakening national self-consciousness took place in Belarus as well. Thanks to the efforts of representatives of the nationally minded intelligentsia (who called themselves both Litvins and Belarusians), who realized the identity of the people in Belarus, already in the first half of the 19th century. significant material was collected on history, ethnography (publications of monuments of oral art, myths, legends, rituals, documents of antiquity). In the western regions, historians and ethnographers writing in Polish (Syrokomlya, Borshevsky, Zenkevich) were active, and in the eastern regions - in Russian (Nosovich).

In 1828, Pavlyuk Bagrim (1813 - 1890), the author of the first poem in the modern Belarusian language "Play, lad!"

By the 40s of the XIX century. the beginning of the activity of the writer Vincent Dunin-Martsinkevich (1807 - 1884), who reflected the color of the Belarusian village (“Selyanka”, “Gapon”, “Karal Letalsky”) in sentimental and didactic poems and comedies written in the spirit of European classicism, dates back to the beginning. Writes in Belarusiansome of the famous Polish poets who came from these places.

In 1845, an anonymous burlesque poem "The Aeneid on the contrary" was published, written in the spirit of the Ukrainian "Aeneid" by Kotlyarevsky, the authorship of which is attributed to V. Ravinsky. Later, another anonymous poem "Taras on Parnassus" appears, which describes the fabulous story of the forest worker Taras, who got to Greek gods to Mount Parnassus, speaking a simple language and representing ordinary villagers.

Later, in the Belarusian literature, a national-patriotic and democratic direction arose, most vividly represented in the 60s by the journalism of the brave fighter for the people's happiness, the national Belarusian hero Kastus Kalinouski, the editor of the first illegal Belarusian newspaper Muzhitskaya Pravda.

The development of the national culture of Latvia and Estonia took place in the struggle against the feudal-clerical ideology of the German-Swedish barons. In 1857 - 1861. the founder of Estonian literature, Friedrich Kreutzwald (1803 - 1882), publishes the national epic Kalevipoeg and Estonian folk tales. Among the Latvian intelligentsia, a national movement of “young Latvians” arose, the organ of which was the newspaper “Petersburg Vestnik”. Most of the "young Latvians" stood on liberal-reformist positions. The poetry of the Latvian patriot Andrei Pumpurs (1841 - 1902) became famous at that time.

In Lithuania, or as it was also called then, Samogitia, a collection of poems by Antanas Strazdas (1763 - 1833) "Secular and Spiritual Songs" appeared.

The annexation of the Caucasus to Russia, despite the protracted nature of the war, increased the penetration into the life of the peoples of the Caucasus through Russian culture of European cultural values ​​and progress, which was reflected in the emergence of a secular school, the emergence of newspapers and magazines, and a national theater. The work of Georgian poets Nikolai Baratashvili (1817-1845) and Alexander Chavchavadze (1786-1846) was influenced by Russian romanticism. These poets, who created in the 30s of the XIX century. romantic school in Georgian literature, freedom-loving aspirations and deep patriotic feelings were inherent. By the 60s of the XIX century. refers to the beginning of the socio-political and literary activities of Ilya Chavchavadze (1837 - 1907).

to develop an accusatory tendency, which was first clearly manifested in the story of Daniel Chonkadze (1830 - 1860) "Surami Fortress" (1859). Protest against feudal arbitrariness and sympathy for the oppressed peasantry attracted progressive Georgian youth to Chavchavadze, among whom stood out a group of "those who drank the waters of the Terek" ("tergdaleuli").

The founder of the new Armenian literature, Khachatur Abovyan, due to the lack of higher educational institutions in Armenia, was educated in Russia. He deeply accepted the humanistic ideas of advanced Russian culture. His realistic novel "The Wounds of Armenia" was permeated with the thought of the significance of the annexation of Armenian lands to Russia. Abovyan rejected the dead language of ancient Armenian writing (grabar) and developed the modern literary Armenian language on the basis of oral folk speech.

Poet, publicist and literary critic Mikael Nalbandian laid the foundation for the national-patriotic trend in Armenian literature. His poems (“The Song of Freedom”, etc.) were an example of civic poetry that inspired the Armenian youth to patriotic and revolutionary deeds.

The outstanding Azerbaijani educator Mirza Fatali Akhundov, rejecting and at the same time using the traditions of the old Persian literature, laid a solid foundation for new, secular Azerbaijani literature and the national Azerbaijani theater in his stories and comedies.

In the folklore of the peoples and nationalities of the North Caucasus and Asia that have recently become part of Russia, patriotic motives and motives of social protest have intensified. Kumyk poet Irchi Kazak (1830 - 1870), Lezghins Etim Emin (1839 - 1878) and other folk singers of Dagestan called on their fellow tribesmen to fight against the oppressors. However, in the culture of these peoples, it is in mid-nineteenth V. great importance had educational activities of local natives who were educated in Russia. Among them were the Abkhazian ethnographer S. Zvanba (1809 - 1855); the compiler of the first grammar of the Kabardian language and the author of the "History of the Adyghe people" Sh. Nogmov (1801 - 1844); the teacher U. Bersey, who created the first "Primer of the Circassian language" in 1855; the Ossetian poet I. Yalguzidze, who compiled the first Ossetian alphabet in 1802.

In the first half of the century, the Kazakh people also had their own enlighteners. Ch. Valikhanov boldly spoke out against the Russian colonizers and the local feudal-clerical nobility, who betrayed the interests of their people. At the same time, arguing that the Kazakhs will forever live in the neighborhood of Russia and cannot get away from its cultural influence, he connected the historical fate of the Kazakh people with the fate of Russia.

RUSSIAN THEATER

Under the influence of European culture in Russia since the end of the XVIII century. there is also a modern theater. At first, it is still developing on the estates of large magnates, but gradually the troupes, gaining independence, on commercial basis became independent. In 1824, an independent drama troupe of the Maly Theater was formed in Moscow. In St. Petersburg in 1832, a dramatic Alexandria Theater, patrons are still large landowners, nobles and the emperor himself, who dictate their repertoire.

Leading value in the Russian theater acquires educational sentimentalism. The attention of playwrights was attracted by the inner world of a person, his spiritual conflicts (dramas by P. I. Ilyin, F. F. Ivanov, tragedies by V. A. Ozerov). With sentimental tendencies, there was a desire to smooth out life's contradictions, features of idealization, melodrama (works by V. M. Fedorov, S. N. Glinka, etc.).

Gradually, the themes characteristic of European classicism are developed in dramaturgy: an appeal to the heroic past of their homeland and Europe, to an ancient plot (“Marfa Posadnitsa, or the Conquest of Novgorod” by F. F. Ivanov, “Velzen, or the Liberated Holland” by F. N. Glinka, "Andromache" by P. A. Katenin, "The Argives" by V. K. Kuchelbeker, etc.). At the same time, such genres as vaudeville (A. A. Shakhovskoy, P. I. Khmelnitsky, A. I. Pisarev) and the family play (M. Ya. Zagoskin) developed.

During the first quarter of the 19th century in the Russian national theater, a struggle is unfolding for the creation of a new, nationally original theater. This task was carried out by the creation of a truly national, original comedy by A. Griboyedov "Woe from Wit". A work of innovative significance was Pushkin's historical drama Boris Godunov, the author of which grew out of the forms of court tragedy of classicism and Byron's romantic drama. However, the production of these works was held back for some time by censorship. The dramaturgy of M. Yu. Lermontov, imbued with freedom-loving ideas, also remains outside the theater: his drama “Masquerade” in 1835-1836. banned three times by censorship (excerpts from the play were first staged thanks to the perseverance of the actors in 1852, and it was played in full only in 1864).

The stage of the Russian theater in the 1930s and 1940s was mainly occupied by vaudeville, pursuing mainly entertainment purposes (plays by P. A. Karatygin, P. I. Grigoriev, P. S. Fedorov, V. A. Sollogub, N. A. Nekrasov, F. A. Koni and others). At this time, the skill of the talented Russian actors M.S. Shchepkin and A.E. Martynov, who were able to identify the contradictions of real life behind comic situations, to give the created images a genuine drama, grew.

Of great importance in the development of the Russian theater were the plays of A. N. Ostrovsky, which appeared in the 50s, raising Russian dramaturgy very high.

FINE ARTS AND ARCHITECTURE

At the beginning of the XIX century. in Russia, under the influence of a social and patriotic upsurge, classicism receives new content and fruitful development in a number of areas of art. In the style of mature classicism with its powerful, strong and monumentally simple forms, the best public, administrative, and residential buildings of St. Petersburg, Moscow and a number of cities are being built: in St. Petersburg - the Admiralty of A. D. Zakharov, the Kazan Cathedral and the Mining Institute - A. N Voronikhina, Exchange - Thomas de Thomon and a number of buildings by K.I. Russia; and Moscow - complexes of buildings by O. I. Bove, D. I. Gilardi and other masters (the new facade of the University, the Manege, etc.). In the process of intensive construction in the first decades of the XIX century. finalizing the classic lookPetersburg.

The patriotic upsurge of the people was supposed to be facilitated by the installation in 1818 on Red Square in Moscow of a monument to the liberators Minin and Pozharsky by the sculptor I.P.Russian victory over Poland and Lithuania.

The influence of classicism in architecture does not disappear even in the middle of the century. However, the buildings of that time are distinguished by some violation of the former harmonic relationship of forms and in some cases are overloaded with decorative decoration. In sculpture, domestic features are noticeably enhanced. The most significant monuments - the monuments to Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly by V. I. Orlovsky and the sculptures of P. K. Klodt (figures of horses on the Anichkov Bridge) - combine the features of classical rigor and monumentality with new romantic images.

Almost all art early 19th century distinguished by classical clarity, simplicity and scale of forms. However, the painters and graphic artists of this time, breaking the old, conditional and limited framework of artistic creativity established by classic aesthetics, are gradually approaching a freer and broader perception and comprehension, sometimes colored with spiritual excitement. surrounding nature and a person. Fruitful development in this period receives a household genre. An example of all this is the work of O. A. Kiprensky (1782 - 1836), S. F. Shchedrin (1751 - 1830), V. A. Tropinin (1776 - 1857), A. G. Venetsianov (1780 - 1847).

In the art of the 1930s and 1940s, historical painting came to the fore. In the painting by K. P. Bryullov (1799 - 1852) "The Last Day of Pompeii" in the composition, plasticity of human figures, the influence of the classic school still affects, however, showing the experiences of people who have been hit by a blind, all-destroying element, the artist already goes beyond classicism. This was clearly manifested in Bryullov's subsequent works (especially in portraiture and landscape sketches).

The exciting ideas of modernity were reflected in his painting by Alexander Ivanov (1806 - 1858). For more than 20 years, the artist worked on his monumental painting “The Appearance of Christ to the People”, the main theme of which was the spiritual rebirth of people mired in suffering and vices.

The works of Pavel Fedotov (1815 - 1852) marked a new stage in the development of Russian painting. Drawing the life of officials, merchants, impoverished, although not losing their claims to the nobles, Fedotov made publicart images and themes that have not previously been touched upon by genre painting. He showed the swagger and stupidity of officials, the naive complacency and cunning of the new rich merchants, the hopeless emptiness of the existence of officers in the provinces in the era of the Nikolaev reaction, the bitter fate of his fellow artist.

Vasily Perov (1834 - 1882), I. M. Pryanishnikov (1840 - 1894), N. V. Nevrev (1830 - 1904) and a number of other painters who began their creative life in the 60s became the creators of accusatory genre paintings, reflecting the phenomena of modern reality. The creations of these artists show the ignorance of the priests, the arbitrariness of officials, the cruel and rude morals of the merchants - the new masters of society, the hard lot of the peasantry and the downtroddenness of the little "humiliated and insulted" people of the social ranks.

In 1863G. 14 students who graduated from the Academy, headed by I.N. Kramskoy (1837 - 1887), refusing to carry out programs on a given topic, united in an artel of artists in order to be able to serve the interests of society with their art. In 1870, the Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions arose, which gathered around itself the best creative forces. In contrast to the official Academy of Arts, which developed salon art in painting and sculpture, the Wanderers supported new artistic initiatives in Russian painting, which paved the way for the rise of art in the 70s and 80s.

RUSSIAN MUSIC

In the 19th century Russian music, which did not yet have strong traditions, reflected the general trends in the development of all art, and, having absorbed the song traditions of many peoples of Russia, gave impetus to the emergence of world-famous composers at the end of the century.

At the beginning of the century, under the influence of the events of the Patriotic War of 1812, the heroic-patriotic theme, embodied in the work of S.A. Degtyarev - the author of the first Russian oratorio "Minin and Pozharsky", D.N. Cashina, S.I. Davydova, I.A. Kozlovsky - the author of the first RussianAnthem "Thunder of Victory!"

Based on the folk melodies of the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples, rich and diverse song lyrics grow up, deeply expressing the world of feelings of a common person (romances by A. A. Alyabyev, lyrical songs by A. E. Varlamov and A. L. Gurilev, romantic operas by A. N. . Verstovsky).

The most famous composer of the first half of the 19th century, whose work brought Russian music into the circle of phenomena of world significance, was Mikhail Glinka (1804 - 1857). In his art, he expressed the fundamental features of the national character of the Russian man, who, despite any adversity and oppression, remains a patriot of his homeland.

Already Glinka's first opera A Life for the Tsar (Ivan Susanin, 1836) became a phenomenon in the cultural life of not only Russia, but also Europe. Glinka created a high patriotic tragedy, the equal of which the opera stage did not know. Another opera - "Ruslan and Lyudmila" (1842) - the composer continues the themes of the glorification of Russian antiquity, but already on fabulously epic, epic material. Historical drama and Glinka's fairy-tale opera determined the future path of Russian opera classics. The significance of Glinka's symphonism is also great. His orchestral fantasy "Kamarinskaya", two Spanish overtures on the themes of folk songs, the lyrical "Waltz-Fantasy" served as the basis for the Russian symphonic school of the 19th century.

Glinka clearly showed himself in the field of chamber lyrics. Glinka's romances are characterized by typical features of his style: the plasticity and clarity of a wide, sing-song melody, the completeness and harmony of the composition. The composer turns to Pushkin's lyrics, and poetic thought finds in him a uniquely beautiful, harmonious, clear expression of Pushkin's stanza.

Alexander Dargomyzhsky (1813 - 1869) continued the traditions of Glinka. Dargomyzhsky's work reflected the new tendencies in all art that were maturing in the critical period of the 1940s and 1950s. The theme of social inequality and lack of rights acquires great importance for the composer. Whether he paints the drama of a simple peasant girl in the opera "Mermaid" or the tragic death of a soldier in "The Old Corporal" - everywhere he acts as a sensitive humanist artist, striving to bring his art closer to the demands of the democratic strata of the Russian society.

Dargomyzhsky's opera Mermaid (1855) marked the beginning of a new genre of psychological drama in Russian music. The composer created wonderful in its depth images of suffering, destitute people from the people - Natasha and her father, the miller. In the musical language of the opera, with its wide development of dramatic expressive recitative and in dramatic scenes, Dargomyzhsky's inherent skill and sensitivity in conveying emotional experiences were manifested.

Dargomyzhsky's innovative searches find their greatest expression in his latest opera, The Stone Guest, based on the plot of Pushkin's drama. Having preserved the entire Pushkin text, the composer builds the opera on the basis of a continuous recitative, without division into complete parts, and subordinates the vocal parts to the principles of speech expressiveness, flexible intonation of the verse. Dargomyzhsky consciously abandons the traditional forms of opera - ensembles and arias - and turns it into a psychological musical drama.

A new upsurge of musical and social life in Russia comes in the 60s. M.A. Balakirev, A.G. and N. G. Rubinstein created musical organizations of a new type, the first conservatories in Russia. The works of prominent art scholars V. V. Stasov and A. N. Serov laid the foundations of classical musicology. All this predetermined the rise of Russian music in the next period, which was carried out by such outstanding composers as Tchaikovsky, Mussorgsky, Borodin and Rimsky-Korsakov.