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The image of the city in the Renaissance. "Ideal cities" of the Renaissance

Classicism in the architecture of Western Europe

Let's leave it to the Italians

Empty tinsel with its fake gloss.

The most important thing is the meaning, but in order to come to it,

We'll have to overcome obstacles and paths,

Follow the marked path strictly:

Sometimes the mind has only one way...

You need to think about the meaning and only then write!

N. Boileau. "Poetic Art".

Translation by V. Lipetskaya

So taught his contemporaries one of the main ideologists of classicism, the poet Nicolas Boileau (1636-1711). The strict rules of classicism were embodied in the tragedies of Corneille and Racine, the comedies of Molière and the satires of La Fontaine, the music of Lully and the painting of Poussin, the architecture and decoration of the palaces and ensembles of Paris...

Classicism was most clearly manifested in the works of architecture, focused on the best achievements. ancient culture- an order system, strict symmetry, a clear proportion of the parts of the composition and their subordination to the general idea. The "austere style" of classicist architecture seemed to be intended to visually embody its ideal formula of "noble simplicity and calm grandeur." The architectural structures of classicism were dominated by simple and clear forms, a calm harmony of proportions. Preference was given to straight lines, unobtrusive decor, repeating the outline of the object. The simplicity and nobility of the workmanship, practicality and expediency affected everything.

Based on the ideas of Renaissance architects about the "ideal city", the architects of classicism created new type a grandiose palace and park ensemble, strictly subordinate to a single geometric plan. One of the outstanding architectural structures of this time was the residence of the French kings on the outskirts of Paris - the Palace of Versailles.

"Fairy Dream" of Versailles

Mark Twain, who visited Versailles in the middle of the 19th century.

“I scolded Louis XIV, who spent 200 million dollars on Versailles when people did not have enough for bread, but now I have forgiven him. It's extraordinarily beautiful! You stare, just open your eyes and try to understand that you are on earth and not in the gardens of Eden. And you are almost ready to believe that this is a hoax, just a fabulous dream.

Indeed, the “fairytale dream” of Versailles still amazes with the scale of the regular layout, the magnificent splendor of the facades and the brilliance of the decorative decoration of the interiors. Versailles became a visible embodiment of the grand-official architecture of classicism, expressing the idea of a rationally arranged model of the world.

One hundred hectares of land in an extremely a short time(1666-1680) were turned into a piece of paradise intended for the French aristocracy. The architects Louis Leveaux (1612-1670), Jules Hardouin-Mansart (1646-1708) and André Le Nôtre(1613-1700). Over the course of a number of years, they rebuilt and changed a lot in its architecture, so that at present it is a complex fusion of several architectural layers, absorbing the characteristic features of classicism.

The center of Versailles is the Grand Palace, to which three converging avenues lead. Located on a certain elevation, the palace occupies a dominant position over the area. Its creators divided the almost half-kilometer length of the facade into a central part and two side wings - risalit, giving it a special solemnity. The facade is represented by three floors. The first one, which plays the role of a massive base, is decorated with rustication on the model of Italian Renaissance palaces-palazzos. On the second, front, there are high arched windows, between which there are Ionic columns and pilasters. The tier crowning the building imparts monumentality to the appearance of the palace: it is shortened and ends with sculptural groups that give the building a special elegance and lightness. The rhythm of windows, pilasters and columns on the façade emphasizes its classical austerity and magnificence. It is no coincidence that Molière said of the Grand Palace of Versailles:

"The artistic decoration of the palace is so in harmony with the perfection that nature gives it that it can be called a magical castle."

Interiors Grand Palace decorated in the Baroque style: they abound with sculptural decorations, rich decor in the form of gilded stucco and carvings, many mirrors and exquisite furniture. The walls and ceilings are covered with colored marble slabs with clear geometric patterns: squares, rectangles and circles. Picturesque panels and tapestries on mythological themes glorify King Louis XIV. Massive bronze chandeliers with gilding complete the impression of wealth and luxury.

The halls of the palace (there are about 700 of them) form endless enfilades and are intended for ceremonial processions, magnificent festivities and masquerade balls. In the largest ceremonial hall of the palace - the Mirror Gallery (73 m long) - the search for new spatial and lighting effects is clearly demonstrated. The windows on one side of the hall were matched by mirrors on the other. Under sunlight or artificial lighting, four hundred mirrors created an exceptional spatial effect, conveying a magical play of reflections.

The decorative compositions of Charles Lebrun (1619-1690) in Versailles and the Louvre were striking in their ceremonial splendor. The “method of depicting passions” proclaimed by him, which involved pompous praise of high-ranking persons, brought the artist a dizzying success. In 1662, he became the king's first painter, and then the director of the royal manufactory of tapestries (hand-woven carpet-pictures, or tapestries) and the head of all decorative work in the Palace of Versailles. In the Mirror Gallery of the Palace, Lebrun painted

a gilded ceiling with many allegorical compositions on mythological themes that glorified the reign of the "Sun King" Louis XIV. Heaped picturesque allegories and attributes, bright colors and decorative effects of the Baroque clearly contrasted with the architecture of classicism.

The king's bedroom is located in the central part of the palace and faces towards rising sun. It was from here that a view of three highways radiating from one point opened, which symbolically reminded of the main center of state power. From the balcony, the view of the king opened up all the beauty of the Versailles park. Its main creator Andre Le Nôtre managed to link together the elements of architecture and gardening art. Unlike landscape (English) parks, which expressed the idea of unity with nature, regular (French) parks subordinated nature to the will and intentions of the artist. The park of Versailles impresses with its clarity and rational organization of space, its drawing is accurately verified by the architect with the help of a compass and ruler.

The alleys of the park are perceived as a continuation of the halls of the palace, each of them ends with a reservoir. Many pools have the correct geometric shape. The smooth water mirrors in the pre-sunset hours reflect the rays of the sun and whimsical shadows cast by bushes and trees trimmed in the shape of a cube, cone, cylinder or ball. Greenery sometimes forms solid, impenetrable walls, sometimes wide galleries, in artificial niches of which sculptural compositions, herms (tetrahedral pillars crowned with a head or bust) and numerous vases with cascades of thin water jets are placed. The allegorical plasticity of the fountains, made by famous masters, is designed to glorify the reign of the absolute monarch. The “Sun King” appeared in them either in the guise of the god Apollo, or Neptune, riding out of the water in a chariot or resting among the nymphs in a cool grotto.

Smooth carpets of lawns amaze with bright and colorful colors with a bizarre flower ornament. In vases (there were about 150 thousand of them) there were fresh flowers, which were changed in such a way that Versailles was in constant bloom at any time of the year. The paths of the park are strewn with colored sand. Some of them were lined with porcelain chips sparkling in the sun. All this splendor and splendor of nature was complemented by the smells of almonds, jasmine, pomegranate and lemon, spreading from greenhouses.

There was nature in this park

As if inanimate;

As if with a lofty sonnet,

They were messing around with the grass.

No dancing, no sweet raspberries,

Le Nôtre and Jean Lully

In gardens and dances of disorder

Couldn't bear it.

The yews froze, as if in a trance,

The bushes lined up,

And curtsied

Learned flowers.

V. Hugo Translation by E. L. Lipetskaya

N. M. Karamzin (1766-1826), who visited Versailles in 1790, spoke about his impressions in the Letters of a Russian Traveler:

“The immensity, the perfect harmony of the parts, the action of the whole: this is what the painter cannot depict with a brush!

Let's go to the gardens, the creation of Le Nôtre, whom the bold genius everywhere placed on the throne of proud Art, and the humble Na-tura, like a poor slave, threw him at his feet ...

So, do not look for Nature in the gardens of Versailles; but here, at every step, Art captivates the eye ... "

Architectural ensembles of Paris. Empire

After the completion of the main construction work in Versailles, at the turn of the 17th-18th centuries, André Le Nôtre launched vigorous activity for the redevelopment of Paris. He carried out the breakdown of the Tuileries Park, clearly fixing the central axis on the continuation of the longitudinal axis of the Louvre ensemble. After Le Nôtre, the Louvre was finally rebuilt, Place de la Concorde was created. The great axis of Paris gave a completely different interpretation of the city, which met the requirements of grandeur, grandiosity and splendor. The composition of open urban spaces, the system of architecturally designed streets and squares became the determining factor in the planning of Paris. The clarity of the geometric pattern of streets and squares linked into a single whole on long years will become a criterion for evaluating the perfection of the urban plan and the skill of the urban planner. Many cities around the world will subsequently experience the influence of the classic Parisian model.

A new understanding of the city as an object of architectural influence on a person finds a clear expression in the work on urban ensembles. In the process of their construction, the main and fundamental principles of urban planning of classicism were outlined - free development in space and an organic connection with environment. Overcoming the chaos of urban development, the architects sought to create ensembles designed for a free and unobstructed view.

Renaissance dreams of creation ideal city were embodied in the formation of a new type of square, the boundaries of which were no longer the facades of certain buildings, but the space of the streets and quarters adjacent to it, parks or gardens, the river embankment. Architecture seeks to connect in a certain ensemble unity not only directly neighboring buildings, but also very remote points of the city.

Second half of the 18th century and the first third of the 19th century. celebrated in France new stage development of classicism and its distribution in European countries - neoclassicism. After the Great french revolution And Patriotic War In 1812, new priorities appeared in urban planning, consonant with the spirit of their time. They found the most striking expression in the Empire style. It was characterized by the following features: ceremonial pathos of imperial grandeur, monumentality, appeal to the art of Imperial Rome and Ancient Egypt, the use of attributes of the Roman military history as the main decorative motifs.

The essence of the new artistic style was very accurately conveyed in the significant words of Napoleon Bonaparte:

"I love power, but as an artist ... I love it to extract sounds, chords, harmony from it."

Empire style became the personification of the political power and military glory of Napoleon, served as a kind of manifestation of his cult. The new ideology fully met the political interests and artistic tastes of the new time. Large architectural ensembles of open squares, wide streets and avenues were created everywhere, bridges, monuments and public buildings were erected, demonstrating the imperial grandeur and power of power.

For example, the Austerlitz bridge was reminiscent of the great battle of Napoleon and was built from the stones of the Bastille. At the Place Carruzel was built Triumphal Arch in honor of the victory at Austerlitz. Two squares (Consent and Stars), separated from each other at a considerable distance, were connected by architectural perspectives.

Church of Saint Genevieve, erected by J. J. Soufflot, became the Pantheon - the resting place of the great people of France. One of the most spectacular monuments of that time is the column of the Grand Army on Place Vendôme. Similar to the ancient Roman column of Trajan, it was supposed, according to the plan of the architects J. Gonduin and J. B. Leper, to express the spirit of the New Empire and Napoleon's thirst for greatness.

In the interior bright decoration of palaces and public buildings, solemnity and majestic pomposity were especially highly valued, their decor was often overloaded with military paraphernalia. The dominant motifs were contrasting combinations of colors, elements of Roman and Egyptian ornaments: eagles, griffins, urns, wreaths, torches, grotesques. The Empire style was most clearly manifested in the interiors of the imperial residences of the Louvre and Malmaison.

The era of Napoleon Bonaparte ended by 1815, and very soon they began to actively eradicate its ideology and tastes. From the "disappeared like a dream" Empire, there were works of art in the Empire style, clearly testifying to its former greatness.

Questions and tasks

1. Why Versailles can be attributed to outstanding works?

As urban planning ideas of classicism of the XVIII century. have found their practical application in architectural ensembles Paris, for example Place de la Concorde? What distinguishes it from the Italian Baroque squares of Rome in the 17th century, such as the Piazza del Popolo (see p. 74)?

2. How did the connection between baroque and classicism find expression? What ideas did classicism inherit from baroque?

3. What are the historical background for the emergence of the Empire style? What new ideas of his time did he seek to express in works of art? What artistic principles does it rely on?

creative workshop

1. Give your classmates a guided tour of Versailles. For its preparation, you can use video materials from the Internet. The parks of Versailles and Peterhof are often compared. What do you think is the basis for such comparisons?

2. Try to compare the image of the “ideal city” of the Renaissance era with the classicist ensembles of Paris (St. Petersburg or its suburbs).

3. Compare the design of the interior decoration (interiors) of the gallery of Francis I in Fontainebleau and the Mirror Gallery of Versailles.

4. Get acquainted with the paintings of the Russian artist A. N. Benois (1870-1960) from the cycle “Versailles. Walk of the King” (see p. 74). How do they convey the general atmosphere of the court life of the French king Louis XIV? Why can they be considered as peculiar pictures-symbols?

Topics of projects, abstracts or messages

"The Formation of Classicism in French Architecture of the 17th-18th Centuries"; "Versailles as a model of harmony and beauty of the world"; "Walking around Versailles: the connection between the composition of the palace and the layout of the park"; "Masterpieces of the architecture of Western European classicism"; "Napoleonic Empire in the architecture of France"; "Versailles and Peterhof: experience comparative characteristics»; "Artistic discoveries in the architectural ensembles of Paris"; "The squares of Paris and the development of the principles of regular planning of the city"; "Clarity of composition and balance of volumes of the cathedral of the Invalides in Paris"; “Concord Square is a new stage in the development of urban planning ideas of classicism”; “The severe expressiveness of volumes and the stinginess of the decor of the church of St. Genevieve (Pantheon) by J. Soufflot”; "Features of classicism in the architecture of Western European countries"; "Outstanding architects of Western European classicism".

Books for additional reading

Arkin D. E. Images of architecture and images of sculpture. M., 1990. Kantor A. M. et al. Art XVIII century. M., 1977. (Small history of arts).

Classicism and Romanticism: Architecture. Sculpture. Painting. Drawing / ed. R. Toman. M., 2000.

Kozhina E.F. Art of France of the 18th century. L., 1971.

LenotrJ. Daily life of Versailles under the kings. M., 2003.

Miretskaya N. V., Miretskaya E. V., Shakirova I. P. Culture of the Enlightenment. M., 1996.

Watkin D. History of Western European architecture. M., 1999. Fedotova E.D. Napoleonic Empire. M., 2008.

In preparing the material, the text of the textbook “World Artistic Culture. From the 18th century to the present” (Author Danilova G. I.).

After the completion of the main construction work in Versailles, at the turn of the 17th-18th centuries, Andre Lenotre launched an active work on the redevelopment of Paris. He carried out the breakdown of the Tuileries Park, clearly fixing the central axis on the continuation of the longitudinal axis of the Louvre ensemble. After Le Nôtre, the Louvre was finally rebuilt, Place de la Concorde was created. The great axis of Paris gave a completely different interpretation of the city, which met the requirements of grandeur, grandiosity and splendor. The composition of open urban spaces, the system of architecturally designed streets and squares became the determining factor in the planning of Paris. The clarity of the geometric pattern of the streets and squares linked into a single whole will become a criterion for assessing the perfection of the city plan and the skill of the city planner for many years to come. Many cities around the world will subsequently experience the influence of the classic Parisian model.

A new understanding of the city as an object of architectural influence on a person finds a clear expression in the work on urban ensembles. In the process of their construction, the main and fundamental principles of urban planning of classicism were outlined - free development in space and organic connection with the environment. Overcoming the chaos of urban development, the architects sought to create ensembles designed for a free and unobstructed view.

Renaissance dreams of creating an “ideal city” were embodied in the formation of a new type of square, the boundaries of which were no longer the facades of certain buildings, but the space of streets and quarters adjacent to it, parks or gardens, a river embankment. Architecture seeks to connect in a certain ensemble unity not only directly neighboring buildings, but also very remote points of the city.

Second half of the 18th century and the first third of the 19th century. in France mark a new stage in the development of classicism and its spread in Europe - neoclassicism. After the Great French Revolution and the Patriotic War of 1812, new priorities appeared in urban planning, consonant with the spirit of their time. They found the most striking expression in the Empire style. It was characterized by the following features: ceremonial pathos of imperial grandeur, monumentality, appeal to the art of Imperial Rome and Ancient Egypt, the use of attributes of Roman military history as the main decorative motifs.

The essence of the new artistic style was very accurately conveyed in the significant words of Napoleon Bonaparte:

"I love power, but as an artist ... I love it to extract sounds, chords, harmony from it."

For example, the Austerlitz bridge was reminiscent of the great battle of Napoleon and was built from the stones of the Bastille. At the Place Carruzel was built triumphal arch in honor of the victory at Austerlitz. Two squares (Consent and Stars), separated from each other at a considerable distance, were connected by architectural perspectives.

Solemnity and majestic pomposity were especially highly valued in the bright interior decoration of palaces and public buildings; their decor was often overloaded with military paraphernalia. The dominant motifs were contrasting combinations of colors, elements of Roman and Egyptian ornaments: eagles, griffins, urns, wreaths, torches, grotesques. The Empire style most clearly manifested itself in the interiors of the imperial residences of the Louvre and Malmaison.

The era of Napoleon Bonaparte ended by 1815, and very soon they began to actively eradicate its ideology and tastes. From the "disappeared like a dream" Empire, there are works of art in the Empire style, clearly testifying to its former greatness.

Questions and tasks

1. Why Versailles can be attributed to outstanding works?

As urban planning ideas of classicism of the XVIII century. found their practical embodiment in the architectural ensembles of Paris, such as Place de la Concorde? What distinguishes it from the Italian Baroque squares of Rome in the 17th century, such as the Piazza del Popolo (see p. 74)?

2. How did the connection between baroque and classicism find expression? What ideas did classicism inherit from baroque?

3. What are the historical background for the emergence of the Empire style? What new ideas of his time did he seek to express in works of art? What artistic principles does it rely on?

creative workshop

2. Try to compare the image of the "ideal city" of the Renaissance with the classical ensembles of Paris (St. Petersburg or its suburbs).

3. Compare the design of the interior decoration (interiors) of the Francis I Gallery in Fontainebleau and the Mirror Gallery of Versailles.

Topics of projects, abstracts or messages

"The Formation of Classicism in French Architecture of the 17th-18th Centuries"; "Versailles as a model of harmony and beauty of the world"; "Walking around Versailles: the connection between the composition of the palace and the layout of the park"; "Masterpieces of architecture of Western European classicism"; "Napoleonic Empire in the architecture of France"; "Versailles and Peterhof: experience of comparative characteristics"; "Artistic discoveries in the architectural ensembles of Paris"; "The squares of Paris and the development of the principles of regular planning of the city"; "Clarity of composition and balance of volumes of the cathedral of the Invalides in Paris"; "Concorde Square - a new stage in the development of urban planning ideas of classicism"; “The harsh expressiveness of volumes and the stinginess of the decor of the church of St. Genevieve (Pantheon) by J. Soufflot”; "Features of classicism in the architecture of Western European countries"; "Outstanding Architects of Western European Classicism".

Books for additional reading

Arkin D. E. Images of architecture and images of sculpture. M., 1990. Kantor A. M. and others. Art of the XVIII century. M., 1977. (Small history of arts).

Classicism and Romanticism: Architecture. Sculpture. Painting. Drawing / ed. R. Toman. M., 2000.

Kozhina E.F. Art of France of the 18th century. L., 1971.

LenotrJ. Daily life of Versailles under the kings. M., 2003.

Miretskaya N. V., Miretskaya E. V., Shakirova I. P. Culture of the Enlightenment. M., 1996.

Watkin D. History of Western European architecture. M., 1999. Fedotova E.D. Napoleonic Empire. M., 2008.

The age of the city has reached its splendid heyday, but there are already signs that it is dying. The century was stormy and cruel, but inspiring. It originated from city-states Ancient Greece(3 thousand years before the Renaissance), which gave rise to the ideal of a free man who rules himself. Because, in fact, such a city consisted of a group of people who, after many generations of quarrels and civil strife, developed an effective system of self-government. This system varied from city to city. In any of them, the number of people capable of claiming full citizenship has always been small. The mass of the inhabitants remained in a more or less servile position and exercised their rights only through violent and cruel uprisings against the higher strata. Nevertheless, throughout Europe, in Italy, Germany, and the Netherlands especially, there was some social agreement about the aims, if not the methods, of government, namely the structure of society, in which the rulers were chosen by some of the ruled. From this civic concept began endless bloody wars. The price that citizens paid for their freedom was measured by their willingness to take up arms in defense of their city against its rivals.

The true voice of the city was the great bell on the city hall or cathedral who sounded the alarm when armed residents of a hostile city approached. He called on all who were able to hold weapons to the walls and to the gates. The Italians turned the bell into a kind of mobile temple, some kind of secular Ark, which led the armies into battle. In battle with neighboring cities for possession of a piece of arable land, in battle against the emperor or king for civil rights, into battle against hordes of wandering soldiers ... During these battles, life in the city froze. All able-bodied men, from fifteen to seventy years old without exception, broke away from normal activities to fight. So in the end, for the sake of economic survival, they began to hire professionals who knew how to fight, while civil power, meanwhile, was concentrated in the hands of one of the prominent citizens. Since he controlled money and weapons, this citizen was gradually transformed into the ruler of a once free city. In those countries that recognized the central monarchy, the city was reconciled to the throne (simply from exhaustion). Some cities, such as London, retained greater autonomy. Others found themselves completely absorbed in the structure of the monarchy. Nevertheless, throughout the Renaissance, cities continued to exist as living units, performing most of the functions that modern society come under the jurisdiction of the central government. They were neither industrial, bedroom districts, nor amusement parks, which many of them later became, but organic structures that combined human flesh and building stone into their own recognizable rhythm of life.

city shape

The cities with which Europe was studded like ceremonial clothes with precious stones were already ancient by the Renaissance. They passed from century to century, maintaining a surprisingly regular shape and constant size. Only in England they did not feel symmetrical, because, with rare exceptions, English cities were not built according to a predetermined plan, but grew from modest settlements, and their structure was formless, as the building was attached to the building in the most disorderly way. On the Continent the trend continued to start new cities rather than expand old ones to unmanageable proportions. In Germany alone, 2,400 cities were founded in 400 years. True, by today's standards it is difficult to say whether these were small towns or large villages. Orange in France had only 6,000 inhabitants until the 19th century. And a city with a quarter of a million inhabitants was considered simply a giant, and there were few of them. The population of Milan, the capital of the duchy, was 200 thousand people, that is, twice the population of its main rival, Florence (see Fig. 53, photo 17), so size was not at all a measure of power.

Rice. 53. Florence at the end of the 15th century From a modern woodcut

Reims, place of coronations, large shopping mall, had 100 thousand inhabitants, and Paris something about 250 thousand. The population of most European cities could be estimated at 10-50 thousand people. Even the losses from the plague did not affect the population for a long time. The number of victims of the plague has always been exaggerated, although, perhaps, in a few months it carried away about a quarter of the inhabitants. However, after a generation, the city returned to its usual level of population. The surplus of inhabitants flowed to new cities. The Italian model, when several towns, united by military or commercial ties, are attached to big city, to varying degrees, can be traced throughout Europe. In such a federation, the system of government and local customs inherent in each city was zealously observed, but the collection of taxes and protection was controlled from the center city.

The city grew like a tree, keeping its shape but growing in size, and the city walls, like cut rings, marked the milestones of its growth. Just outside the city walls lived the poor, beggars, outcasts of all kinds, who built their huts around the walls, creating a disgusting mess of miserable streets. Sometimes they were dispersed by the energetic municipality, but more often they were allowed to remain where they were until some plan loomed. Wealthy residents settled outside the city in villas in the middle of large estates, protected by their own walls. When, finally, economic necessity or civic pride demanded the expansion of the city, another ring of walls was erected around. They took over new land and left additional space for development. And the old walls continued to stand for several more centuries, if they were not predatoryly dismantled for the construction of new buildings. Cities resumed their form, but did not pursue new building materials, so that the same piece of brick or hewn stone could be in half a dozen different buildings in a thousand years. You can still see traces of the disappeared old walls, because later they turned into ring roads or, less often, into boulevards.

The fortress walls set the shape and determined the size of the city. In the Middle Ages, they served as a powerful protection for the inhabitants, who had supplies of water and food. A military leader who was about to besiege a city should have prepared for many months of waiting until the enemy ran out of supplies. The walls were kept in order at the public expense, and, whatever else fell into disrepair, they were taken care of first of all. The collapsed wall was a sign of a ruined city, and the first task of the victorious invader was to wipe it off the face of the earth. Unless he was going to live there. However, gradually the fortress walls lost their significance, which was reflected in the way cities began to be depicted. In the 16th century, the top view was widely used, the plan, where special importance was attached to the streets. They were painted in the border of houses. Important buildings were highlighted. But gradually everything was formalized, made flat, and the plan became more accurate, although less spectacular and picturesque. But before the plan came into use, the city was depicted as if a traveler, approaching, sees it from afar. It was rather a work of art, on which the city appeared, as in life, with walls, towers, churches, pressed close to each other, like one huge castle (see Fig. 54).

Rice. 54. City wall as a military structure. Nuremberg in 1493. From a modern engraving

Such cities exist to this day, such as Verona, located on a hillside. In their plan, the drawing laid down by the builders is clearly visible. In the south, especially in Italy, large, tower-like houses dominated, giving the urban landscape the appearance of a petrified forest. These houses were remnants of a more violent age, when feuds between families and factions tore apart the cities. Then those who could build higher, higher, even higher gained an advantage over their neighbors. Skillful city government succeeded in reducing their numbers, but many still sought to elevate themselves in this way, endangering the internal security of the city and greedily depriving the narrow streets of air and light.

Rice. 55. City gate, where duties are collected from all goods arriving in the city

The city gates that cut through the walls (see fig. 55) played a double role. They performed not only a defensive function, but also contributed to the city's income. Guards were placed around them, collecting a fee on everything that was brought into the city. Sometimes these were products Agriculture, a crop harvested from the surrounding fields, orchards and orchards. And sometimes - exotic spices brought from thousands of miles - everything at the gate was subject to customs inspection and duties. At one time, when the Florentine customs had fallen dangerously low, one of the officials suggested doubling the number of gates and thereby doubling their profitability. At a meeting in the city council, he was ridiculed, but this thoughtless proposal stemmed from the belief that the city was an independent entity. The villagers hated these extortions, receiving only dubious promises of armed protection for them. They went to all sorts of tricks, just to avoid paying. Sacchetti has a very true-sounding story about a peasant who hid chicken eggs in his baggy pants to fool the guards. But those, warned by the enemy of the peasant, forced him to sit down while they examined the cargo. The result is clear.

In cities, gates played the role of eyes and ears. They were the only point of contact with the outside world. It is from outside world a threat came, and the guards at the gate scrupulously reported to the ruler about the arrival and departure of foreigners and all sorts of strangers in general. In free cities, closed gates were a symbol of independence. The late traveler, who arrived after sunset, was forced to spend the night outside the city walls. Hence the custom to build hotels outside, at the main gate. The gate itself was like a small fortress. They housed a garrison guarding the city. Huge castles that towered over medieval cities were, in fact, a simple continuation of the main fortress gate-houses.

However, the absence of a building plan in medieval cities was more apparent than real. It is true: the streets twisted aimlessly, circled, made loops, even dissolved into some courtyards, but after all, they were not supposed to provide a direct transition from one point of the city to another, but to create a frame, scenery for public life. The stranger, having passed through the city gates, could easily find his way to the center of the city, because the main streets radiated from the central square. "Piazza", "place", "parade ground", "square", whatever it was called in the local language, was the direct heir to the Roman forum, a place where anxious people gathered in days of war and where they wandered, having fun, in peacetime. . Again, only England did not have such a meeting place. The British preferred to expand the main street into a market. It served the same purpose, but lacked a sense of cohesion and unity, and with increased traffic lost its importance as a central meeting place. However, on the continent, this echo of Ancient Rome continued to exist.

Rice. 56. Piazza (square) San Marco, Venice

It could have been a modest, unpaved area, shaded by trees, perhaps surrounded by shabby houses. And it could be huge, amazing, like the main squares in Siena or Venice (see Fig. 56), could be planned so that it seemed like a huge hall without a roof. However, no matter how she looked, she remained the face of the city, the place where the inhabitants gathered, and the vital organs of the city, the centers of government and justice, lined up around her. Somewhere else there could be another, naturally formed center: for example, a cathedral with auxiliary buildings, usually built on a small square. From the main gate, a fairly wide straight and clean road led to the square, then to the cathedral. At the same time, away from the center, the streets became, as it were, peripheral veins serving local needs. They were deliberately made narrow - both to provide passers-by protection from the sun and rain, and in order to save space. Sometimes the top floors of buildings were only a few feet apart. The narrowness of the streets also served as protection during wars, because the first action of the attackers was to gallop through them before the inhabitants had time to erect barriers. Troops could not maintain military order by marching on them. Under such circumstances, a hostile mob, armed with simple boulders, could successfully prevent the passage of professional soldiers. In Italy, streets began to be paved as early as the 13th century, and by the 16th century all the main streets of most European cities were paved. There was no separation between pavement and pavement, because everyone either rode or walked. Crews began to appear only in the 16th century. Gradually, wheeled traffic grew, the streets straightened to make it easier for him to pass, and then pedestrians were taken care of, further emphasizing the difference between rich and poor.

Cult of Vitruvius

The cities of the Renaissance era had one thing in common: they grew and developed spontaneously, as needed. Only the city walls were planned, which were laid and built as a whole, and inside the city, only the size of a particular building set the layout of the adjacent territory. The cathedral determined the structure of the whole district with adjoining streets and squares, but in other places houses appeared as needed or were rebuilt from existing ones. Even the very concept of city planning was absent until the second half of the 15th century, when the ideas of the Roman architect Vitruvius Polio were revived. Vitruvius was the architect of August Rome, and his work On Architecture dates from about 30 BC. He was not one of the famous architects, but his book was the only one on this subject, and it pleased the world, obsessed with antiquity. Discoveries in architecture were made in the same way as in geography: the ancient author gave impetus to minds capable of their own creativity and research. People who believe they are following Vitruvius have in fact used his name to frame their own theories. Vitruvius considered the city as a self-sufficient unit, which should be planned, like a house, all parts of which are subordinate to the whole. Sewerage, roads, squares, public buildings, proportions of building sites - everything has its own place in this plan. The first treatise based on the concept of Vitruvius was written by the Florentine Leon Battista Alberti. It was published in 1485, only thirteen years after his death, and led a long line of works that stretched until the 19th century, works that had a huge impact on urban planning. Most of these works were amazingly, even too exquisitely, illustrated. Given the mathematical basis of this cult, it is not surprising that the followers took everything to the extreme. The city was invented, just like a problem in geometry, not paying attention to human and geographical factors. Theoretical perfection led in practice to lifeless dryness.

Rice. 57. Palma Nova, Italy: a strict urban plan

Just fortunate that only a few cities were built in accordance with the principles of Vitruvius. Every now and then there was a need, more often a military one, in a new city. At times it could be built according to this new theory (for example, Palma Nova (see fig. 57) in the Venetian state). For the most part, however, architects had to content themselves with partial development, because they rarely had the opportunity to completely demolish the old buildings and rebuild in their place. The architect faced passive resistance, suffice it to recall how Leonardo da Vinci's proposal to build satellite settlements around Milan was met. The terrible plague of 1484 claimed 50,000 inhabitants, and Leonardo wanted to build ten new cities with 5,000 houses and settle there 30,000 people, "in order to defuse too much crowding of people who have huddled in herds like goats ... filling every corner of space with stench and sowing seeds infection and death. But nothing of the kind was done, because neither monetary gain nor military advantages were foreseen in this. And the ruler of Milan chose to spend the gold on decorating his own court. This was the case throughout Europe. Cities have already taken shape and there is no room left for large-scale planning. Rome was the only exception to this rule.

The first city of Christianity in the Middle Ages fell into decay. The peak of his misfortunes was the transfer of the papacy to residence in Avignon in 1305. For more than a hundred years, there has not been a power in the Eternal City strong enough to restrain the ambitions of the great families and the brutal savagery of the crowd. Other cities of Italy grew prettier and prospered, while Rome was covered with mold and collapsed. The city of Augusta was built firmly, it survived and did not succumb to the attacks of time and the raids of the barbarians, but died at the hands of its own citizens. The wars were partly to blame, but mainly the fact that massive ancient buildings were a source of ready-made building materials. In 1443 the great schism ended, and the papacy was again established in Rome. For the first time drew attention to the deplorable state the eternal city Pope Nicholas V. He understood that in order to recognize Rome as the capital of the world, it must be rebuilt (see Fig. 58). An enormous task! The city once held about a million people - the most big number residents up to 19th century. Before the industrial revolution, which led to the expansion of construction, no European city could compare in size with the Rome of Augustus. And in 1377 it had only about 20 thousand inhabitants. Seven of its hills were abandoned, the population preferred to live on the swampy banks of the Tiber. Cattle roamed the deserted streets lined with ruined houses. The forum lost its former glory and bore the nickname "Campo Vacchino", that is, "Cow Field". Dead animals were never cleaned up, and they rotted where they died, adding the smell of smoldering and rot to the filthy slush underfoot. There was no city in Europe that sank so low from such great heights.

Rice. 58. Panorama of Rome in 1493, with St. Peter's (above). From a modern engraving in Schedel's book "The Chronicle of the World"

More than 160 years have passed since Pope Nicholas V conceived his reconstruction, and until the time when Bernini completed the colonnade at St. Peter's Cathedral, more than 160 years have passed. And all the popes who ruled during that century and a half, from the virtuous to the vicious, from the most learned Nicholas to the depraved Alexander Borgia, shared a passion that breathed new life into the first of all the cities of the Renaissance, a love of art and architecture, a desire to transform ancient city to the worthy capital of Christendom.

The list of names of architects and artists who worked there sounds exactly like a roll call of fame: Alberti, the first of the Vitruvians, Bramante, Sangallo, Bernini, Raphael, Michelangelo and many others who fell into the shadow of the great, but are able to decorate the court of any ruler. Some of what has been done is regrettable: for example, the destruction of the ancient St. Peter's Cathedral in order to build a new Bramante temple in its place caused a storm of protests. But absolute papal authority was enough to complete one of the greatest urban projects in history. The result was not just a magnificent monument to some ruler. Whole line ordinary townspeople also got benefits: water supply improved, the ancient sewage system was restored, the threat of fires and plague sharply decreased.

City life

The city was a stage on which, in front of all honest people, what was happening now in the silence of offices took place. Details striking in their variability were striking: the irregularity of buildings, the eccentric styles and variegation of costumes, the countless goods that were produced right on the streets - all this gave the Renaissance city a brightness that is absent in the monotonous monotony of modern cities. But there was also a certain homogeneity, a fusion of groups that proclaimed inner unity cities. In the 20th century, the eye has become accustomed to the divisions created by urban sprawl: pedestrian and car traffic take place in different worlds, industry is separated from commerce, and both are separated by space from residential areas, which, in turn, are subdivided according to the wealth of their inhabitants. A city dweller can live his whole life without seeing how the bread he eats is baked or how the dead are buried. The larger the city became, the more a person moved away from his fellow citizens, until the paradox of loneliness in the midst of a crowd became an ordinary phenomenon.

In a walled city of, say, 50,000 people, where most of the houses were wretched shacks, the lack of space encouraged people to spend more time in public. The shopkeeper sold goods almost from the stall, through a small window. The shutters of the first floors were made on hinges in order to quickly recline, forming a shelf or table, that is, a counter (see Fig. 60). He lived with his family in the upper rooms of the house and, only having become significantly richer, could he keep a separate store with clerks, and live in a garden suburb.

Rice. 60. City traders, including: a clothing and textile merchant (left), a barber (center) and a confectioner (right)

A skilled craftsman also used the lower floor of the house as a workshop, sometimes putting his products up for sale right there on the spot. Craftsmen and merchants were very inclined to show herd behavior: each city had its own Tkatskaya Street, Myasnitsky Ryad, and its own Rybnikov Lane. And if there was not enough space in small crowded rooms, or even just in good weather, trade moved to the street, which became indistinguishable from the market. Dishonest people were punished publicly, in the square, in the same place where they earned their living, that is, in public. They were tied to a pillory, and worthless goods were burned at their feet or hung around their necks. A vintner who sold bad wine was forced to drink a large amount of it, and the rest was poured over his head. Rybnik was forced to sniff rotten fish or even smeared his face and hair with it.

At night, the city was plunged into complete silence and darkness. Even where there was no obligatory "hour of extinguishing the fires", the wise man tried not to go out late and after dark sat safely behind strong doors with bolts. A passer-by, caught by the guards at night, had to prepare to convincingly explain the reason for his suspicious walk. There were no such temptations that could lure an honest man from home at night, because public entertainment ended at sunset, and the townsfolk adhered to the hoarding habit of going to bed at sunset. Tallow candles were available, but still quite expensive. And foul-smelling wicks soaked in rags of fat were also used sparingly, because fat cost more than meat. The working day, which lasted from dawn to dusk, left little strength for a stormy night of fun. With the widespread development of printing, it became a custom in many homes to read the Bible. Another domestic entertainment was playing music for those who could afford to buy musical instrument: a lute, or a viol, or a flute, as well as singing for those who had no money for it. Most people spent the brief hours of leisure between dinner and bedtime in conversation. However, the lack of evening and night entertainment was more than made up during the day at public expense. Frequent church holidays reduced the number of working days per year to a figure, perhaps lower than today.

Rice. 61. Religious procession

Fasting days were strictly observed and supported by the force of law, but holidays were understood literally. They not only included the liturgy, but turned into wild fun. These days, the solidarity of the townspeople was clearly manifested in crowded religious processions and religious processions (see Fig. 61). There were few observers then, because everyone wanted to take part in them. Albrecht Dürer witnessed a similar procession in Antwerp, and his artist's eye gazed with delight at the endless procession of colors and shapes. It was on the day of the Assumption of the Virgin, “... and the whole city, regardless of rank and occupation, gathered there, each dressed in the best dress according to his rank. All guilds and estates had their own signs by which they could be recognized. In the intervals they carried huge expensive candles and three long old Frankish trumpets of silver. There were also drums and pipes made in the German style. They blew and beat loudly and noisily ... There were goldsmiths and embroiderers, painters, masons and sculptors, joiners and carpenters, sailors and fishermen, weavers and tailors, bakers and tanners ... truly workers of all kinds, as well as many artisans and different people, earning their own living. They were followed by archers with rifles and crossbows, horsemen and foot soldiers. But in front of all of them were religious orders ... A large crowd of widows also took part in this procession. They supported themselves by their labor and observed special rules. They were dressed from head to toe in white clothes, sewn especially for this occasion, it was sad to look at them ... Twenty people carried the image of the Virgin Mary with our Lord Jesus, luxuriously dressed. In the course of the procession, many wonderful things were shown, magnificently presented. They pulled wagons on which stood ships and other structures, full of people in masks. They were followed by a troupe, representing the prophets in order and scenes from the New Testament ... From beginning to end, the procession lasted more than two hours until it reached our house.

The miracles that so delighted Dürer in Antwerp would have fascinated him in Venice and Florence, because the Italians treated religious holidays as an art form. At the feast of Corpus Christi in Viterbo, in 1482, the whole procession was divided into sections, each of which was responsible for some cardinal or the highest dignitary of the church. And each strove to outdo the other by decorating his plot with costly draperies and providing it with a stage on which the mysteries were played, so that, as a whole, it formed into a series of plays about the death and resurrection of Christ. The stage used in Italy for the performance of the mysteries was the same as in all of Europe: a three-story structure, where the upper and lower floors served respectively as Heaven and Hell, and the main middle platform depicted the Earth (see Fig. 62).

Rice. 62. Scene for the presentation of mysteries

Most of all attention was attracted by the complex stage mechanism, which allowed the actors to soar and float in the air. There was one scene in Florence which consisted of a suspended ball, surrounded by angels, from which, at the right moment, a chariot appeared and descended to earth. Leonardo da Vinci made an even more complex machine for the Dukes of Sforza, which showed the movement of celestial bodies, each carrying its own guardian angel.

Secular processions in Italy reenacted the great triumphs of classical Rome and were named after them. Sometimes they were arranged in honor of the arrival of some sovereign or famous military leader, sometimes just for the sake of a holiday. The glorious names of the great Romans were revived in memory, they were represented in togas and laurel wreaths and transported around the city in chariots. They especially liked to depict allegories: Faith conquered Idolatry, Virtue exterminated Vice. Another favorite representation is the three ages of man. Every earthly or supernatural event was played out in great detail. The Italians did not work on the literary content of these scenes, preferring to spend money on the pomp of the spectacle, so that all allegorical figures were straightforward and superficial creatures and only proclaimed high-sounding empty phrases without any conviction, thus passing from performance to performance. But the splendor of the scenery and costumes delighted the eye, and that was enough. In no other city in Europe did civic pride manifest itself so brightly and with such brilliance as in the annual ritual of the wedding with the sea, which was performed by the ruler of Venice, a strange mixture of commercial arrogance, Christian gratitude and Eastern symbolism. This ritual festival begins in 997 after the birth of Christ, when the Doge of Venice before the battle made a libation of wine, pouring it into the sea. And after the victory, it was celebrated on the next Ascension Day. A huge state barge, called the Bucentaur, was rowed to the same point in the bay, and there the doge threw a ring into the sea, declaring that by this action the city was married to the sea, that is, to the elements that made it great (see. Fig. 63).

Rice. 63. "Bucentaur" Venetian

"Bucentaur" majestically participated in all civil ceremonies. Solemn processions in other cities moved in the dust in the heat, and the Venetians glided along the smooth surface of their great sea road. The Bucentaur was refitted from a battle galley, which swept all the enemies of Venice from the Adriatic. She retained the powerful and vicious ramming prow of a warship, but now the upper deck was trimmed with scarlet and gold brocade, and a garland of golden leaves stretched along the side sparkled dazzlingly in the sun. On the prow was a human-sized figure of Justice with a sword in one hand and scales in the other. The sovereigns who came to visit were escorted on this ship to the island city, surrounded by countless small boats, also decorated with rich fabrics and garlands. The guest was brought to the very door of the residence allotted to him. No wonder the Venetian carnivals, staged with the same splendid disregard for expense, resplendent with the same sensual, almost savage taste for bright colors, attracted visitors from all over Europe. During these days, the city's population doubled. Apparently, the fashion for masquerades went from Venice, which then spread to all the courtyards of Europe. Other Italian cities masked actors were introduced into the mysteries, but it was the entertainment-loving Venetians with their commercial acumen who appreciated the mask as a piquant addition to the carnival.

The military competitions of the Middle Ages continued almost unchanged into the Renaissance, although the status of their participants somewhat decreased. So, for example, the fishmongers of Nuremberg staged their own tournament. Archery competitions were very popular, although the bow as a weapon disappeared from the battlefield. But the most beloved were the holidays, the roots of which went back to pre-Christian Europe. Failing to eradicate them, the Church, so to speak, christened some of them, that is, appropriated them, while others continued to live in an unchanged form, both in Catholic and Protestant countries. The greatest of these was May Day, the pagan meeting of spring (see Fig. 64).

Rice. 64. May Day celebration

On this day, both the poor and the rich traveled and went out of town to pick flowers, dance and feast. To become May Lord was a great honor, but also an expensive pleasure, because all the festive expenses fell on him: it happened that some men disappeared from the city for a while to evade this honorary role. The holiday brought to the city a particle of the countryside, life in nature, so close and so far away. Throughout Europe, the change of seasons was celebrated with festivities. They differed from each other in details and names, but the similarities were stronger than the differences. The Lord of Disorder still reigned on one of the winter days - the direct heir of the Roman saturnalia, which, in turn, was a relic of the prehistoric winter solstice festival. Again and again they tried to eradicate it, but it was revived in local carnivals with jesters, warriors and dancers in disguise, which first appeared to the world in cave drawings. The time has come, and the holidays of a thousand years ago easily fit into the life of cities, where the roar of printing presses and the noise of wheeled carriages marked the beginning of a new world.

Travelers

The main cities of Europe were connected by a very efficient postal system. A simple layman could freely use it ... if he was not afraid that his letters would be read. The authorities who organized the mail were interested in espionage almost as much as in establishing communication between cities and countries. Despite the terrible state of the roads, the number of vehicles increased. The wave of pilgrimage reached an unprecedented height, and when the flow of pilgrims began to subside, merchants took their place, because trade was actively developing. State officials were ubiquitous, the tramp of soldiers' boots on the march did not subside for a minute. Travelers going about their business are no longer a rarity. People like the restless Erasmus moved from one scientific center to another in search of a place and means of subsistence. Some even saw travel as a means of education combined with pleasure. In Italy arose new school local history writers who recommended the curious to visit interesting places. Many traveled on horseback, but carriages had already begun to appear (see fig. 65), rumored to have been first invented in Kotz or Kosice (Hungary).

Rice. 65. German carriage 1563. Long-distance travel required at least 4 horses

Most of these carriages were made for show - they were extremely uncomfortable. The body was hung on belts, which in theory were supposed to serve as springs, but in practice turned the trip into a series of nauseating dives and swings. The average speed was twenty miles a day, depending on the quality of the roads. It took at least six horses to pull the carriage through the thick winter mud. They were very sensitive to the bumps they often encountered along the way. Once in Germany, such a pothole formed that three carriages fell into it at once, and this cost the life of one unfortunate peasant.

Roman roads were still the main arteries of Europe, but even their splendor could not resist the predation of the peasants. When material was needed to build a barn or barn, or even a house, the villagers with habitual readiness turned to large stocks of already hewn stone, which, in fact, was the road. As soon as the upper layers of the road surface were removed, the weather and transport completed the rest. In a few regions, there were orders to preserve and maintain roads outside the cities. In England, a miller who suddenly needed clay for repairs dug a hole 10 feet across and eight feet deep, and then threw it away. The pit filled with rainwater, a traveler fell into it and drowned. Called to account, the miller said that he had no intention of killing anyone, there was simply nowhere else to get clay. He was released from custody. However, the ancient custom prescribed to make roads of minimum width: in one place it was supposed to allow two carts to pass each other, in the other - to pass a knight with a spear at the ready. In France, where Roman roads ran through forests, their width was increased from 20 feet to about seventy-eight, as a precaution against brigands, who became more and more numerous as expensive freight traffic increased. A wise man always traveled in company, and everyone was armed. The lone traveler was regarded with suspicion, and he could well end up in a local prison if he did not name worthy reasons for his stay in this region.

Travel across Europe, even under favorable circumstances, could take several weeks. Therefore, roadside hotels - inns (see Fig. 66) have acquired such importance.

Rice. 66. Main common room of a roadside hotel

It could be a large establishment, such as the famous Bull Hotel in Padua, where up to 200 horses were housed in the stables, or it could be a tiny, fetid tavern for the careless and naive. In Austria, an innkeeper was captured, who, as it was proven, over the years killed more than 185 guests and accumulated considerable wealth from this. However, most contemporaries paint a quite friendly picture. The nice lady, portrayed by William Caxton in the first guidebook, was supposed to make a pleasant impression on travelers after a tiring day spent on the road. Caxton had his book printed in 1483.

Among other things, she supplied his monolingual countrymen with enough French phrases to inquire about how to get out of the city, hire a horse and get a lodging for the night. The conversation in the hotel cited there is more polite than informative, but it shows us what situations were repeated every evening in all the cities of Europe.

“God bless you, lady.

- Welcome, boy.

– Can I get a bed here?

- Yes, good and clean, [even if] there are a dozen of you.

No, there are three of us. Can you eat here?

- Yes, in abundance, thank God.

“Bring us food and give the horses hay and dry them well with straw.”

Travelers ate, prudently checked the bill for the meal and asked to add its cost to the morning calculation. Then follows:

“Take us to bed, we are tired.

“Jeanette, light a candle and show them upstairs to that room. And bring them hot water to wash their feet, and cover them with a feather bed.”

Judging by the conversation, this is a first-class hotel. Travelers are served dinner on the table, they obviously did not bring food with them, although this was the custom. They are escorted to bed with a candle and provided with warm water. Perhaps, if they were lucky, they could get a bed for each, and not share it with some stranger. But whether it was a luxurious hotel, in which guests were also offered entertainment, or a simple hut near the city wall, the traveler could rest in it for several hours, protected not only from bad weather and wild animals, but also from his fellow humans.

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