Development of geographical knowledge development of geographical knowledge v. The main directions of development of economic and geographical ideas in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries

Geographical thought in the first half of the 19th century. developed mainly in the directions laid down in the previous century.

Thunen German economist, representative of the German geographical school in economics, one of the forerunners of marginalism. Main works: "The isolated state in its relation to agriculture and the national economy"

Ogorev"The experience of the statistical distribution of the Russian empire". Recognized the existence of eq. Districts, considered them in dynamics

Kryukov"Picture of the industry of European Russia" 13 districts. He spoke about the rational distribution of industry in Russia.

A significant contribution to the emergence of domestic geomorphology was made by Severgin. On the basis of trips to a number of regions of the European part of Russia and Finland, he compiled ideas about the diversity of landforms and made judgments about the methods of their origin and development. Severgin recognized the leading role behind the flowing waters in the transformation of the land surface. He singled out some forms of river valleys. Severgin tried to classify the mountains by origin: formed under the action of water, under the action of fire, under the action of both forces, hills blown by the wind.

The beginnings of hydrology, in particular lake science, are set forth in a number of works by N.Ya. Ozeretskovsky: "Traveling of academician N. Ozeretskovsky on lakes Ladoga, Onega and around Ilmen" Ozeretskovsky compiled a map of Lake Ladoga, on which the main islands were first plotted. Ozeretskovsky explored and described the upper reaches of the Volga, Ozeretskovsky was the first to study the rivers and lakes of the north-west of the European part of Russia, their hydrological features.

A special place in the development of the evolutionary view in the study of natural processes belongs to K.F. steering wheel. Roulier asserted the dependence of animals on the conditions of existence. The founder of the ecological direction in geography. "On the detailed study of organisms and habitats". All natural phenomena are inextricably linked and are in constant motion. Organic and inorganic life must be studied in interaction.

A notable phenomenon in the regional physical geography of the XIX century. there was a book Eversman"The Natural History of the Orenburg Territory" Eversman singled out five districts in the vast territory of the Orenburg region. Eversman's "Natural History of the Orenburg Territory" is one of the first experiments in physical-geographical zoning.

L.S. Abramov believes that physical geography in the first half of the 19th century, especially in its first quarter, was in decline. The reasons for this were, firstly, the closure of the Geographical Department, and geography was not represented by any institution in the Academy of Sciences, and secondly, geography had not yet received its development in universities. By the Charter of 1803, the teaching of geography was transferred to the historical and philological faculties, where its natural component gradually degraded. IN best case sections on nature were included in statistical surveys of territories.

For a long time economical geography developed under the rubric, statistics. Economic and geographical characteristics were present in regional geographical descriptions, in which, along with natural objects, information was given about the population and economic activity. Using this principle of geographical characteristics, statistical essays on the provinces were prepared. Among the scientists in this direction, it is necessary to mention Herman, organizer of official statistics in Russia, author of statistical descriptions of the Saratov, Taurida and Yaroslavl provinces, “Statistical research on Russian Empire”, which provides detailed data on the population in various climates. According to the properties of the land and climate, Herman identified eight groups of provinces. In 1810 published "Statistical Review of Siberia" M.N. Bakarevich.

Another direction of socio-economic descriptions was cameral statistics, whose leaders contrasted statistics with geography, aimed at describing the state, but not the territory. The representative of this direction was a professor of St. Petersburg University Zyablovsky. He published an extensive work Statistical description of the Russian Empire”, in which a description was given of the size and limits of the state, languages ​​​​and morality of the inhabitants, mountains, soils, climate, etc. Its main principle was the description of the details of the objects under consideration without their significant analysis.

The most important works of Arseniev of statistical content were: “Statistical image of cities and towns of the Russian Empire”, “Hydrotechnical and statistical description of the cities of the Russian Empire, showing all the changes that have taken place in the composition and number thereof over two centuries, from the beginning of the 17th century to the present” , "Hydrographic Review of Russia", two collections of "Materials for Statistics of the Russian Empire", the capital work "Statistical Essays on Russia".

On the territory of Russia, Arseniev identified three latitudinal zones (bands): forest, dry sandy steppes, as well as a strip lying between them with black or gray soil, capable of the best processing. In addition, ten economic regions (spaces) were identified on the territory of the country, nine of which covered European part, the Urals and the Caucasus, the tenth space included all of Siberia and Far East. Arseniev began to form economic geography as a geographical discipline with his own research methods, began to develop the principles of the country's economic zoning, was at the origins of regional economic geography, and sought to highlight its typical features for each region.

A.I. Game published "Inscription of a universal land description according to the latest division of states and lands", in 1821 - "Experience in inscription of statistics of the main states."

The idea of ​​creating a Russian Geographical Society first began to be discussed in the spring of 1844. The draft charter of the society was instructed to draw up Baer.

Baer founder of oceanology, determined the cause of the asymmetry of the coasts.

Ruprecht- founder of the genetic geography of plants. "Geobotanical research on chernozem"

Severtsev- singled out 3 natural zones (tundra, steppe, forest). "Periodic phenomena in the life of animals, birds and ghats of the Voronezh province"

Lenz- the main task of physical geogr. - definition of what physical. laws it develops.

Tien Shan- singled out geography as an independent science. He singled out mathematical, physical, ethnographic, and statistics.

Tyunin- Studied the distribution of productive forces. "The isolated state, its relation to agriculture and national economy".

A characteristic feature of the 1/2 19th century Russian development. geogr. - its differentiation into physical and economic-geographical. research.

Ritter brought out the law according to which human culture should spread from east to west.

DEVELOPMENT OF GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE v During the second half of XIX and the beginning of the 20th century. Russian geography has achieved great success, which was mainly due to the activities of the Russian Geographical Society.

F. P. LITKE v F. P. Litke (1797-1882) - admiral of the Russian fleet, was a major geographic traveler. In the rank of midshipman, he took part in the voyage of V. M. Golovnin on the Kamchatka.

F. P. LITKE v In 1826-1829 F. P. Litke was the commander of the Senyavin sloop, who committed circumnavigation during which significant scientific work in the northern part Pacific Ocean. In Kamchatka, the most important coastal points were identified and the heights of many hills were measured; the islands are described in detail.

SEMENOVA-TYANSHANSKY v F. P. Litke led the Geographical Society until January 17, 1873. After him, P. P. Semenova-Tyan-Shansky (1827-1914), who played a major role in the development of Russian geography, became the head of the society.

v In 1856-1857. Semenov-Tian-Shansky made a scientific expedition to the Tien Shan, laying the foundation for a comprehensive study of nature and human activity. During the expedition, Semenov-Tyan-Shansky studied the mutual relations between various components of nature and human activity, and also found patterns in the relationships between the elements of nature, highlighting vertical belts and types of terrain. v Semenov-Tian-Shansky contributed to the creation of a whole school of geographers, which included the largest scientists: Ya. M. Przhevalsky, V. I. Roborovsky, Ya. G. Potanin, M. V. Pevtsov, Ya. K. Kozlov, V. A Obruchev, IV Mushketov and others.

PETER ALEKSEEVICH KROPOTKIN v Pyotr Alekseevich Kropotkin (1842-1921) during his travels in Siberia in 1862-1867. collected extremely valuable material that changed all previous ideas about the northeastern part of Asia.

NIKOLAI MIKHAILOVICH PRZHEVALSKY v Nikolai Mikhailovich Przhevalsky (1839-1888) is known as a great explorer of Central Asia. While at the Military Academy, Przhevalsky compiled the great work "Military Statistical Review of the Amur Territory" and was elected a member of the Geographical Society.

v In 1867, P.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky suggested that Przhevalsky go to the Ussuri region. Przhevalsky accepted this offer and remarkably conducted his first expedition, the results of which are set out in the book Journey to the Ussuri Territory. After that, the Geographical Society accepted a plan for his trip to Central Asia. v N. M. Przhevalsky made four trips to Central Asia: Mongolian (1871-1873), Lob-Nor and Dzhungar (1876-1877), Tibetan first (1879-1881) and Tibetan second (1883- 1886). At the beginning of the fifth expedition, Przhevalsky died.

NIKOLAY NIKOLAEVICH MIKLUKHO-MACLAY v Nikolay Nikolaevich Miklukho-Maclay (1846-1888) occupies a special place among the travelers of the last century. While other geographers were discovering new, hitherto unknown lands, Miklouho-Maclay sought, first of all, to discover a person among the “primitive” he studied, that is, not affected European culture, peoples.

v Humanitarian sciences in Russia in the 19th century. were original and world-class. characteristic feature development of the humanities in the 19th century is their differentiation: such sciences as sociology, political science stand out from philosophy; from historical science - archeology, ethnography and auxiliary historical disciplines. The humanities began to be distinguished by a variety of schools and trends that influenced the development of science in the 20th century.

v A characteristic phenomenon of the beginning of the XIX century. in Russia there was an increase in interest in history. As a consequence, numerous historical societies appear, in particular Moscow Society history and antiquities of Russia (1804). The names of K. D. Kavelin (1818 -1885), B. N. Chicherin (1828 -1904), S. M. Solovyov (1820 -1879) are associated with the direction in the national historical science, behind which the name "public school" was established.

V. O. KLYUCHEVSKY v The student of S. M. Solovyov - V. O. Klyuchevsky (1841 -1911) became a legend and classic of Russian historiography bright representative national psychological and economic school, which was formed in Russia in the last quarter of the 19th century. when psychoanalysis became popular.

"Grandfather" Russian geography and the founder of the geographical school is rightfully considered Peter Petrovich Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky (1827-1914). For more than forty years he headed the work of the Russian Geographical Society. The scientific school he created was one of the largest geographical schools. It included world-famous scientists: N.M. Przhevalsky, M.V. Pevtsov, V.A. Obruchev, P.A. Kropotkin, N.N. Miklukho Maclay.

The name of P.P. Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky is associated with the pioneering study of the nature of the Tien Shan, for which he received the honorary prefix "Tyan-Shansky" to his surname.

The development of the Russian Empire in the 19th century intensified the processes of the geographical division of labor. What does this mean? And the fact that certain parts of the country acquired an economic appearance and originality different from others.

between Moscow and Nizhny Novgorod an industrially oriented area is being formed, where numerous workers from non-chernozem provinces are attracted. The largest mining region in the Urals is being created. On the expanses of the recent Wild Field, an area of ​​commercial grain farming is being formed.

There is a need for the economic zoning of the country, which was done by P. P. Semyonov-Tian-Shansky.

P. P. Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky distinguishes 12 economic regions: 1) Extreme northern; 2) Lakeside; 3) Baltic; 4) Moscow Industrial; 5) Central agricultural; 6) Priuralskaya; 7) Nizhnevolzhskaya; 8) Little Russian; 9) Novorossiysk; 10) Southwest; 11) Belarusian; 12) Lithuanian.

The proposed zoning reflected the economic reality so faithfully that it was used until the 1920s. The scientist believed that geography should study both the natural features of the earth's surface and the human activity that changes it. Man remains the crowning achievement of geographical study.

The "fathers" of Russian geography are considered D. N. Anuchina, V. V. Dokuchaeva, A. I. Voeikova who created their authoritative scientific schools.

Remarkable Russian scientist Dmitry Nikolaevich Anuchin (1843-1923) considered the surface of the Earth as an object of geography, serving as an arena for the activity of various forces - from cosmic to anthropogenic. The author painted a picture of the active change in nature by man: “The mass of plants and factories now consumes such a mass of fuel that a huge amount of gases, including carbon dioxide, enters the atmosphere every day, which can ... affect the composition of the air and the general temperature of the atmosphere” .

Imagine that this statement sounded like a warning about global warming climate at the beginning of the 20th century!

D. N. Anuchin laid the foundations for a new geographical science— lake-management in Russia.

On the threshold of the 20th century, the great Russian scientist Vasily Vasilyevich Do-kuchaev (1846-1903) - founder of the science of soil and natural areas- in his pioneering work "To the doctrine of the zones of nature" drew attention to the general connection between inanimate and living nature and human activity. The scientist proclaimed the most important goal to study the correlation of the age-old and regular connection that exists between the bodies and forces of dead and living nature, on the one hand, and man, his life and even the spiritual world, on the other.

An outstanding scientist-geographer and climatologist received world fame Alexander Ivanovich Voeikov (1842-1916). Deserved fame brought him work on the climates of the globe. The scientist paid much attention to a phenomenon typical of Russia - snow cover and its impact on nature and economy. material from the site

Rice. 7. A. I. Voeikov

To increase productivity, he proposed planting field-protective "forest edges" and other snow retention measures. A. I. Voeikov was also interested in economic and geographical issues - land reclamation and active use natural resources, the development of resorts in the Caucasus, the population. Describing the conditions for the distribution of the population between villages and cities, he introduced the term "cities-millionaires" (cities with a population of more than 1 million people).

The history of the development of Russian geography in the 19th century - development theoretical foundations geography in conjunction with practical significant character research.

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  Enlightenment and science in the second half of the 19th century.

  "... you can't be a patriot today without relying on the rich heritage of our ancestors. Knowledge of the Fatherland's past makes a person richer in spirit, firmer in character and smarter in mind. History brings up in him the necessary feeling national pride! History requires us to respect ourselves, like grandfather's graves, and the culture of the people always depends on how much the people appreciate and know their past ... "(V. Pikul. "Night Flight") Plan 1. Development of education. 2. Advances in the natural sciences 3. Development of geographical knowledge 4. Development of the humanistic sciences Homework.

  1. The development of education 1 / 2 The abolition of serfdom, the successes in the economy in the second half of the 19th century could not but lead to profound changes in all areas of culture. The post-reform period is characterized by the growth of literacy and the development of education.

  The beginning of the development of out-of-school education (1859) 1 / 2 Became widespread various forms out-of-school education. In 1859, the first in Russia were organized in Kyiv Sunday schools. Then they appeared in other cities, by 1862 there were more than 300 of them. These schools were free. The curriculum in them was much wider than in public schools. Students were introduced to the basics of chemistry and physics, geography and national history were also studied.

  Mass opening of zemstvo schools (1864 - 1874) 1 / 2 Zemstvos began to play a huge role in the spread of education. From 1864 to 1874 alone, almost 10,000 zemstvo schools were opened. The government gave preference to parishes, but the state did not have enough money to maintain them. Therefore, the zemstvo school continued to be the most common type elementary school, covering all provincial and county towns as well as many rural areas. Verbal counting. N.P. Bogdanov - Belsky. 1895

  main type high school were high schools. In 1861, there were 85 men's gymnasiums in Russia, where 25 thousand people studied. A quarter of a century later, their number has tripled, and there are 70,000 gymnasium students. In the late 1860s, the question of women's education. Already by the beginning of the 90s, about 300 women's secondary educational institutions were opened, up to 75 thousand girls studied in them. Women were allowed to attend lectures at universities as volunteers. Soon, higher courses for women began to operate in St. Petersburg and Moscow. Gymnasium Gymnasium student

  Higher education Universities are being opened in Tomsk and Odessa. There are special higher educational establishments: Medical-Surgical (Military-Medical) Academy Technological, Mining, Railways, Electrotechnical Institutes

  Medical-Surgical (Military-Medical) Academy Mining Institute Petrovsky Agricultural Academy

  However, in general, the literacy rate of the population in Russia remained one of the lowest in Europe. According to the 1897 census For comparison: At the end of the 60s According to the population census of 1897 For comparison: At the end of the 60s

  2. Development of science and technology The successes of industry have been closely linked with the achievements in various branches of science and technology. Many of the discoveries of Russian scientists were of an applied nature and were widely used for applied purposes, becoming a significant contribution to world technological progress. 1867 - the work "On Averages", in which a theorem is given that underlies various problems in the theory of probability. Mathematician and mechanic and Pafnuty Lvovich Chebyshev

  Stoletov's discovery of the speed of light by A.G. Stoletov in 1876, by measuring the ratio of electromagnetic and electrostatic units, obtained a value close to the speed of light. Stoletov's proposal to organize the measurement of this quantity, adopted by the First Congress of Electricians in 1881, contributed to the establishment of the electromagnetic theory of light. Physicist Alexander Grigorievich Stoletov

  The invention by Yablochkov of an electric arc lamp. In 1876, P.N. Yablochkov created an electric arc lamp. Soon, Yablochkov's light bulbs lit up the streets and houses of many cities around the world. Physicist Pavel Nikolaevich Yablochkov Candle Yablochkov

  Aircraft Mozhaisky In 1881, the naval officer A.F. Mozhaisky designed the world's first aircraft, however, his tests ended in failure. Physicist Alexander Fedorovich Mozhaisky

  Blinov's caterpillar tractor In 1888, self-taught mechanic F.A. Blinov invented the caterpillar tractor.

  Mendeleev's table Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev D.I. Mendeleev was a scientist with versatile knowledge and interests (chemistry, physics, metrology, aeronautics, Agriculture, economics, education. World fame brought him the discovery in 1869 of the periodic law chemical elements one of the fundamental laws of natural science. Periodic system of elements of Mendeleev shows that Chemical properties elements, i.e., their qualities, are determined by the amount of their atomic weight. Thus, his discovery serves as a brilliant confirmation of one of the general laws development of nature - the law of the transition of quantity into quality.

  Popov's report on radio communications Alexander Stepanovich Popov Professor A.S. Popov developed a generator of electromagnetic oscillations; On April 25, 1895, in the Russian Physical Society, he demonstrated a receiver-transmitter made by him. In 1900, Popov's radio was used for practical purposes to save fishermen in the Gulf of Finland. For his discovery, the scientist was awarded the Big Gold Medal at the World Exhibition in Paris in 1900. Radio Popova

  At the World Exhibition in Paris, a collection of Russian soils collected by Dokuchaev was shown 1 / 1 VV Dokuchaev initiated the science of the properties of various soils. In 1889, the published works of Dokuchaev, awarded a gold medal, were shown at the World Exhibition in Paris. In the book Our Steppes Before and Now, the scientist outlined a plan to combat the drought that hit the black earth zone of Russia in 1891. This plan provided for measures to influence the nature of the steppes through planting forests. Vasily Vasilyevich Dokuchaev

  Scientists-naturalists Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov I.M. Sechenov created the doctrine of the reflexes of the brain, having carried out a revolution in biology. He was the first to prove the unity and mutual conditioning of mental and bodily phenomena, emphasizing that mental activity is the result of the work of the brain.

  Scientists-naturalists Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov I.I. Mechnikov and N.F. Gamaleya organized the first bacteriological station in Russia, developed methods for the fight against rabies. Nikolai Fedorovich Gamaleya

  Przhevalsky's discovery of a species of wild horse (1879) Przhevalsky's expedition Modern zoologists managed to save an endangered species - the Przewalsky's Horse. This is the only wild horse preserved in nature. It was discovered by Nikolai Przhevalsky in 1879 in the Gobi desert, in southern Mongolia. In the middle of the twentieth century, these animals remained three dozen, and they all lived in captivity. But from now on existence rare species is no longer under threat: thanks to successful breeding, the wild horse is again released into the Mongolian steppes.

  Expeditions of Miklukho-Maclay Nikolai Nikolaevich Miklukho-Maclay N.N. Miklouho-Maclay devoted his life to the study of peoples South-East Asia, Australia, Pacific Islands. For two and a half years he lived on the northeastern coast of New Guinea, was able to win the love and trust of its inhabitants. He made two difficult trips to the inner regions of Malacca, visited the Philippines and Indonesia, lived in Australia, where he founded a biological station. In 1881, he developed a project to create an independent state in New Guinea - the Papuan Union, designed to resist the colonialists.

  Historical science Sergei Mikhailovich Soloviev S.M. Solovyov is a professor, dean of the Faculty of History and Philology, rector of Moscow University. Author of the 29-volume History of Russia from Ancient Times. belonged to public school who considered the state driving force historical development.

  Start of scientific activity Klyuchevsky Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky Student of S. M. Solovyov V.O. Klyuchevsky in 1882 brilliantly defended his doctoral dissertation "Boyar Duma" at Moscow University Ancient Rus'". Author of many historical research and "The Course of Russian History", which he read at Moscow University. Great importance attached to the study of socio-economic causes historical events and phenomena. Students of all faculties gathered at the lectures of V. O. Klyuchevsky, and as a rule they ended under a flurry of student applause.

  Opening of the Historical Museum in Moscow Historical Museum founded in 1872, opened in 1883. It is the largest repository of monuments national history and culture. The Moscow City Duma gave its own site for the construction of a museum.

  Opening of the Hermitage for visits C mid-nineteenth century, the number of museums is growing. In addition to art and natural sciences, industrial, memorial, agricultural and local history museums. In 1865, the Hermitage became accessible to the public with its richest collections of Western European art; at the end of the century, the first art museum was established. state museum Russia - Russian Museum. Museums are also opening in the province art galleries and industrial, art and trade exhibitions are held.

  Homework: Make a table "Achievements of science in the second half of the 19th century" in a notebook. SCIENCE OF DISCOVERIES AND ACHIEVEMENTS (Who? What? When?) Mathematics Physics Chemistry Biology Geography History 2. Paragraph 36.

  Thank you for your attention!