From the history of medicine. Life of great doctors

This scientist, the founder of the study of the body human body rightly called the father of anatomy.
The great-great-grandfather of Andreas Vesalius, Peter, was the physician of Emperor Maximilian and was very fond of books. He spent part of his fortune on a collection of medical manuscripts. History even left a comment in one of the books of the "Canon of Medicine" by the great scientist of the East Avicenna. Vesalius' great-grandfather was a mathematician and physician in Brussels. My grandfather was also a doctor. My father was a pharmacist, so there was someone and something to learn from.

The famous anatomist was born in Brussels in 1514. WITH young years used a rich library, which was the property of relatives. Thanks to all this, the young Andreas developed a love for the study of medicine. Vesalius was very capable of learning.
He received a good education, finishing school in Brussels and then enrolling at the University of Louvain.

The inclination to study anatomy appeared quite early. He opened up the corpses of domestic animals with great enthusiasm, studying the structure of organs. Father's friend, court physician Nikolai Floren advised Vesalius to study in Paris.

In 1533, Andreas went to study medicine in Paris. Here, for four years, he studied anatomy under the guidance of the famous Italian doctor Guido (Vidius). Guido was one of the first who began to study large veins, peritoneum on corpses, described the appendix (appendix).

It is quite obvious that the study of anatomy is carried out on cadaveric material. And that's where the big problems were. The church was against it, and for such a charitable deed one could be persecuted. Under cover of night, Vesalius stole the corpses of hanged criminals for study.

Andres managed to assemble his first connected skeleton with great difficulty. With my friend (subsequently famous doctor) Gemma Frisia, climbed on the gallows, removed the bodies of the executed and hid them in the bushes along the roads. Not without difficulty then delivered them home. Subsequently, the soft tissues were cut off and the bones were boiled. And all this had to be done with the utmost care and in secret.

In 1538, Andreas Vesalius published the anatomical tables he created, these were six drawings that were engraved by his friend, the artist Kalkar. Studying the literature of the past, the scientist became convinced that the description of the structure of the human body is mainly determined by the experience of opening the bodies of animals. Moreover, in this way erroneous information was transmitted from century to century.

Vesalius, studying anatomy on the human body, for four years wrote his immortal work "On the friction of the human body" in seven volumes. The work was supplemented by a large number of illustrations. cited detailed description human body, and numerous errors of predecessors were noted. For example, for centuries it was believed that a man has one less rib (of course, from that rib the Lord created Eve).

The work of Vesalius was the foundation on which modern anatomy arose. Vesalius had great respect for Galen. He admired the vastness of his mind, and ventured to point out small "inaccuracies" in his teaching. But there were more than two hundred such additions. In fact, this meant a refutation of the main teachings of Galen (that which was the bible of healers for almost 1500 years!). Andreas described the structure of the heart and proved that there is no septum between the left and right ventricles of the heart, as mentioned earlier. It is worth recalling that at that time it was not known about the circles of blood circulation. So where does the blood that the heart pumps go? Even without knowing about the presence of small vessels - capillaries, one can purely empirically calculate: the heart pumps about 6 liters of blood per minute. There is simply not enough blood in the body. It is taken from nowhere and disappears into nowhere... Vesalius could not find an answer to this question. This was done later by William Harvey.

After the work of Vesalius was published, a real storm began in science. Just imagine (now it’s basically the same), you are a professor or even an academician, you realize some kind of hypothesis all your life, scientific idea. You are relying on some kind of foundation built by scientists before you. And then a young man appears who says: everything that you have been doing all your life is, to put it mildly, nonsense. Teacher Vesalius, for whom the authority of Galen was adamant, called the scientist "proud, slanderer, monster." Moreover, he issued a document ridiculing Vesalius. Under this document, all the enemies of Andreas united.
The scientist was accused of disrespectful attitude to the teachings of Hippocrates and Galen. These teachings were canonized by the church (true knowledge is not subject to verification!).
Persecution led the desperate Vesalius to stop research work, burned some of his manuscripts and materials ... He went to war as a chief military surgeon, to the service of Charles V. After the war, he was the attending physician of Charles V, and then switched to the service of his son, Philip II.

The Spanish Inquisition began to persecute Andreas, accusing the scientist of murder, allegedly, while dissecting a corpse, he stabbed a living person. He was sentenced to death. In 1563, a noble lady bequeathed her body for an autopsy. The brother of the deceased was present at the autopsy. After the anatomist cut the ribs to extract the heart, it began to beat (as the brother of the deceased claimed). Whether it seemed to a relative who did not understand anything in medicine, or whether it was a deliberate slander, no one knows. Philip II intervened in the fate of Vesalius and the execution was replaced by a pilgrimage to Palestine. Returning from this dangerous journey, the ship on which he sailed was wrecked. The father of anatomy was thrown out on the small island of Zakynthos, where he fell seriously ill and died. On October 15, 1956, at the age of 50, the soul of the founder of anatomy rested on a small island.

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On the topic: "Andreas Vesalius - the father of modern anatomy"

Isakova Alla Shaditovna

Andreas Vesalius, founder of anatomy

If anyone can be called the father of anatomy, it is, of course, Vesalius. Andreas Vesalius, naturalist, founder and creator of modern anatomy, was one of the first to study the human body through dissections. All later anatomical acquisitions originate from him.

Andreas was born in Brussels on December 31, 1514 and grew up among the doctors who visited his father's house. From a young age, he used a rich library of medical treatises collected in the family and passed down from generation to generation. Thanks to this, the young and capable Andreas developed an interest in the study of medicine. I must say that he possessed extraordinary erudition: he remembered all the discoveries made by various authors, and commented on them in his writings.

Andreas Vesalius showed an early aptitude for anatomy. In his free time from university studies, he dissected and carefully dissected domestic animals with great enthusiasm. This passion has not gone unnoticed. The court physician and friend of Father Andreas, Nikolai Floren, who was interested in the fate of the young man, recommended that he study medicine, and only in Paris. Subsequently, in 1539, Vesalius dedicated his Epistle on Bloodletting to Florin, calling him his second father.

In 1533, Andreas went to study medicine in Paris. Here, for three or four years, he studied anatomy, listened to lectures by an Italian doctor, better known as Vidius and Jacques Debois. He was one of the first to begin anatomical studies of the structure of the vena cava, peritoneum, etc. on human corpses; invented the injection of blood vessels with dyes; described the appendix, the structure of the liver, the position of the vena cava, opened the vein valves, etc.

Vesalius also attended the lectures of the "modern Galen", as the best physician in Europe, Fernel, was called. Jacques Francois Fernel, mathematician, astronomer, philosopher and physician, introduced several key concepts into medicine: "physiology" and "pathology". He wrote a lot about syphilis and other diseases, studied, among other things, epilepsy and accurately distinguished the types of this disease. In 1530, the Faculty of Medicine of Paris awarded him the degree of doctor of medicine, in 1534 he received the title of professor of medicine. He was called the first doctor of France and one of the most venerable in Europe.

Vesalius did not limit himself to attending the lectures of Sylvius and Fernel, he also studied with Johann Günther, a Swiss from Anderlecht, who at that time taught anatomy and surgery in Paris. With Gunther, Vesalius established a more cordial relationship than with Sylvius. Günther greatly appreciated his student.

Anatomy classes involve practice on human material. Vesalius needed the corpses of dead people for anatomical studies. But this issue has always been a big problem. This occupation, as you know, has never been a charitable deed, the church has traditionally rebelled against it. Herophilus was probably the only doctor who, while dissecting corpses in Museion, was not persecuted for this. Carried away by the passion of scientific research, Vesalius went alone to the cemetery at night and there he challenged their half-rotted prey with stray dogs.

After spending more than three years in Paris, in 1536 Vesalius returned to Louvain, where he continued to do what he loved with his friend Gemma Frizius (1508-1555), who later became a famous doctor. Vesalius made his first connected skeleton with great difficulty. Together with Frisia, they stole the corpses of the executed, sometimes removing them in parts, climbing the gallows with danger to their lives. At night, they hid body parts in roadside bushes, and then, using various occasions, they delivered them home, where they cut off soft tissues and boiled the bones. All this had to be done in the deepest secrecy.

Vesalius entered into an argument with Driver (1504-1554), a lecturer at the University of Louvain, about how best to perform bloodletting. There were two opposing opinions on this issue: Hippocrates and Galen taught that bloodletting should be done from the side of the diseased organ, the Arabs and Avicenna suggested doing it from the opposite side of the diseased organ. Driver spoke in support of Avicenna, Vesalius - Hippocrates and Galen. Driver was indignant at the audacity of the young doctor and sharply answered him and from then on became hostile to Vesalius. Vesalius felt that it would be difficult for him to continue working in Louvain.

It was time to go somewhere. But where! In Spain the church was omnipotent; touching a knife to a human corpse was considered a desecration of the deceased and was completely impossible; in Belgium and France, the autopsy of corpses was a very difficult matter. Vesalius travels to the Venetian Republic, attracted by the opportunity to gain more freedom for anatomical research. The University of Padua, founded in 1222, became subject to Venice in 1440. The Faculty of Medicine has become the most famous medical school in Europe. Padua met Vesalius favorably; his works of Gunther's Anatomical Establishments and Razi's Paraphrase were already known there.

On December 5, 1537, the medical faculty of the University of Padua, at a solemn meeting, awarded him the degree of doctor of medicine, with the highest honors. After Vesalius publicly demonstrated the autopsy, the Senate of the Venetian Republic appointed him professor of surgery with the obligation to teach anatomy. He became a professor at the age of 23. His bright lectures attracted listeners from all faculties. Soon, to the sound of trumpets, under waving flags, he was proclaimed a doctor at the palace of the Bishop of Padua.

The active nature of Vesalius could not put up with the routine that reigned in the anatomy departments of many universities, where professors monotonously read long excerpts from the works of Galen. The autopsy of corpses was carried out by illiterate ministers, and professors with a voluminous volume of Galen in their hands stood nearby and from time to time pointed with a wand at various organs as they were mentioned in the text.

In 1538, Vesalius published anatomical tables - 6 sheets of drawings engraved by the student of Titian, the artist S. Kalkar. In the same year, he undertook the reprinting of the works of Galen and a year later published his Letters on Bloodletting. While working on the release of the works of his predecessors, Vesalius became convinced that they described the structure of the human body on the basis of a section of the organs of the animal body, transmitting erroneous information legitimized by time and tradition. Studying the human body through autopsies, Vesalius accumulated indisputable facts, which he decided to boldly oppose to the canons of the past. During the four years of his stay in Padua, Vesalius wrote his immortal work "On the structure of the human body" (books 1-7), which was published in Basel in 1543 and was richly illustrated. It provides a description of the structure of organs and systems, indicates numerous errors of predecessors, incl. Galena. It should be especially emphasized that after the appearance of the treatise of Vesalius, the authority of Galen was shaken, and then overthrown.

By coincidence, the treatise appeared in the year of Copernicus' death, and at the same time Copernicus's book "On the Revolution of Celestial Bodies" was published, which revolutionized not only astronomy, but also the worldview of people. By the way, the son of a merchant, Canon Copernicus, knew a lot about anatomy, at one time he studied at the medical faculty of the University of Padua, and upon returning to Poland from 1504 to 1512, he was a doctor of his uncle, Bishop Wachenrode.

The work of Vesalius was the beginning of modern anatomy; in it, for the first time in the history of anatomy, not a speculative, but a completely scientific description of the structure of the human body, based on experimental studies, was given.

The father of anatomy, Vesalius made a huge contribution to the anatomical terminology in Latin. Taking as a basis the names introduced by Aulus Cornelius Celsus (I century BC), Vesalius gave uniformity to the anatomical terminology, threw out, with extremely rare exceptions, all medieval barbarisms. At the same time, he reduced Grecisms to a minimum, which to some extent can be explained by his rejection of many provisions of Galen's medicine. It is noteworthy that, being an innovator in anatomy, Vesalius believed that the carriers of the psychic are "animal spirits" that are produced in the ventricles of the brain. This view was reminiscent of Galen's theory, for the said "spirits" were only the renamed "psychic pneuma" of the ancients.

The work of Vesalius “On the structure of the human body” is not only the result of the study of previous achievements in anatomy, but also a scientific discovery based on new research methods that were of great revolutionary importance in the science of that time. Diplomatically lavishing praises on the “divine husband” Galen and expressing surprise at the vastness of his mind and versatility of knowledge, Vesalius dares to point out only some “inaccuracies” in his teaching. But he counts more than 200 such inaccuracies, and they are, in essence, a refutation of the main provisions of the teachings of Galen. Vesalius, in particular, was the first to refute the erroneous opinion of Galen and his other predecessors that there are supposedly holes in the human heart septum through which blood passes from the right ventricle of the heart to the left. He showed that the right and left ventricles of the heart do not communicate with each other in the postembryonic period. However, from this discovery, which fundamentally refuted Galen's ideas about the physiological mechanism of blood circulation, Vesalius did not draw the correct conclusions, they were subsequently made by Harvey.

After the publication of the great work of Vesalius, a long-brewing storm broke out. Silvius, the teacher of Vesalius, bowing to the authority of Galen, considered abnormal in the human body everything that did not agree with the description or view of the great Roman. For this reason, he rejected the discoveries of his student Vesalius. Without hiding his indignation, he calls Vesalius "a proud man, a slanderer, a monster whose unholy breath infects Europe." Silvius and his disciples made a united front against Vesalius, calling him an ignoramus and a blasphemer. However, Sylvius did not limit himself to insults, he wrote a sharp pamphlet “Refutation of the slander of a certain madman on the anatomical works of Hippocrates and Galen, compiled by Jacob Sylvius, the royal interpreter on medical issues in Paris” (1555) Sylvius in 28 chapters of this pamphlet wittily ridicules his former student and friend, calling him not Vesalius, but "Vesanus", which means "mad" in Latin, and, in the end, renounces him.

Pamphlet Sylvia played fatal role in the life of Vesalius. This document, imbued with malicious and jealous envy, united the enemies of the father of anatomy and created an atmosphere of public contempt around his immaculate name among the conservative camp of the then medical scientists. Vesalius was accused of disrespectful attitude to the teachings of Hippocrates and Galen, who were formally canonized by the then omnipotent Catholic Church, but their judgments and especially authority were accepted as indisputable truths of Holy Scripture, and to object to them was tantamount to rejecting the latter. In addition, Vesalius was a student of Sylvius, used his scientific advice, and if Sylvius reproached Vesalius for slander, then the accusation incriminated by him seemed plausible. Sylvius did not unselfishly defend the authority of Galen. His indignation was due to the fact that, undermining the authority of Galen, Vesalius destroyed him himself, for the knowledge of Sylvius rested on the texts of the classics of medicine carefully studied and transmitted to students.

The Sylvius pamphlet inflicted a mortal wound on Vesalius, from which he never recovered. Opposition to the scientific views of Vesalius arose in Padua. One of his most active opponents was his student and deputy chair Reald Colombo (c. 1516-1559). After the appearance of the insinuation, Sylvia Colombo dramatically changed his attitude towards his teacher: he began to criticize, tried to discredit before the students. In 1544, when Vesalius left Padua, Colombo was appointed to the chair of anatomy, but only served as professor of the chair for a year. In 1545 he moved to the University of Pisa and then, in 1551, took up a chair in Rome, where he worked until his death. Gabriel Fallopius (1523-1562) replaced Colombo at the Padua chair and declared himself the heir and student of Vesalius, continuing with honor his traditions.

The evil fabrications of Sylvius led to the fact that, driven to despair, Vesalius stopped his research work and burned part of his manuscripts and materials collected for further work. Vesalius was forced in 1544 to move into the field of medical practice, into the service of Charles V. At that time, Charles V was at war with France, and Vesalius, as chief military surgeon, had to go to the theater of operations. The war ended in September 1544, and Vesalius left for Brussels, where his father soon died. After the death of his father, Vesalius inherited, and he decided to start a family. In January 1545, Charles V arrived in Brussels, and Vesalius was to take over the duties of the emperor's attending physician. Karl suffered from gout and was notable for immoderation in food. Vesalius had to make titanic efforts to alleviate the suffering of the emperor. After the abdication of Charles V, in 1555, Vesalius entered the service of his son, Philip II. In 1559, Philip II moved his court from Brussels to Madrid, and Vesalius and his family followed him.

The Spanish Inquisition began mercilessly persecuting Vesalius, accusing him of allegedly slaughtering a living person while dissecting a corpse, and eventually sentenced him to death. And only thanks to the intercession of Philip II, the execution was replaced by a pilgrimage to Palestine to the Holy Sepulcher. Returning back from this dangerous and difficult journey at the time, at the entrance to the Strait of Corinth, Vesalius' ship was wrecked, and the father of modern anatomy was thrown onto the small island of Zante, where he fell seriously ill and died on October 2, 1564, 50 years old. On this secluded island covered with pines, the soul of the great anatomist rested forever.

Andrew Vesalius - founder scientific anatomy. His remarkable book De humini corporus fabrica, written in 1543, was the first fully illustrated anatomy of the human body. It was based on the observations of the scientist, made by him during autopsies, and refuted many thousands of years of misconceptions in this field of knowledge. Andrew Vesalius - Renaissance scientist. He was professor of anatomy at the University of Padua and physician to the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V.

Andrei Vesalius: a short biography

Vesalius was born on December 31, 1514 in Brussels. At that time the city was part of the Holy Roman Empire. Today it is the capital of Belgium. Andrei was one of four children - he had two brothers and a sister. His father, Anders van Wezele, served as court apothecary to Margaret of Austria. Mother, Isabelle Crabbe, raised children in a rich house located in a respectable area near the Cowdenberg Palace, where the boy's father worked.

Vesalius went to school at the age of six. It probably was educational institution Catholic Brotherhood in Brussels. For 9 years, he mastered arithmetic, Latin and other languages, and also thoroughly studied the principles of the Catholic religion. His father was often absent on duty. And the boy, encouraged by his mother to follow in his father's footsteps, took full advantage of the family's well-stocked library.

College

At the age of 15, Andrei Vesalius entered the University of Louvain. It was located 30 km east of Brussels. It was a moment of family pride: his father was forbidden to receive higher education because he was born out of wedlock. As was customary then, Vesalius studied art and Latin. He also mastered Hebrew and Greek. After receiving his Master of Arts degree in 1532, he was admitted to the prestigious medical school of the University of Paris.

Paris Medical School

Andrew Vesalius began his medical education in 1533, at the age of 19. The talented student was greatly influenced by the works of the ancient Greek physician Claudius Galen, written 1300 years before he met them. These teachings were considered absolute and flawless truth. Most of Galen's anatomical observations were made during the autopsy of animals, mainly primates, since in that era it was forbidden to dissect people.

Andrei Vesalius, as an anatomist, owes much to his anatomy teacher Johann Guinter von Andernach, who translated the ancient Greek texts of Galen into Latin. Like the ancient Greek physician, he believed personal experience and observations the best way obtaining anatomical knowledge. Most human autopsies at that time were carried out solely for the purpose of assuring students that everything written by Galen and Hippocrates was true.

During a typical demonstration, a butcher or surgeon would make the necessary incisions, while the teacher, seated high above the body, would read the relevant passages from ancient writings aloud. The assistant assisted the students by pointing to the organs under discussion. Since the ancient texts could not contain any errors, the students were not allowed to ask questions or discuss the dissection. Academic disputes, as a rule, concerned the correctness of the translation of ancient works, and not anatomy.

Guinter von Andernach was a rare type of teacher in those days. He allowed his students to dissect themselves. Although this practice was condemned by most universities. As a rule, an autopsy was performed on executed criminals, and it was considered humiliating for educated people to deal with these despicable specimens.

Vesalius' talents impressed Guinter so much that he asked him to help with a book on Galenic anatomy, Institutiones anatomicae. The work was published in 1536. In it, Guinter praised his 21-year-old student: "This promising young man has an outstanding knowledge of medicine, is fluent in Latin and Greek, and is very experienced in anatomy."

Louvain Medical School

Andrew Vesalius was forced to leave Paris in 1536 as war broke out between France and the Holy Roman Empire. To complete his medical studies, he returned to the University of Louvain. His expertise in anatomy was quickly recognized. Soon, Vesalius was assigned to observe and comment on the autopsy of an 18-year-old noblewoman who died suddenly. Anatomy of young women at that time was rare. Vesalius was outraged by the inexperience of the surgeon and took over the autopsy.

Despite a keen awareness of his growing experience, he was still dissatisfied with his knowledge of human anatomy. Vesalius realized that the texts could teach him nothing more. Now Andrei had to break down the barriers to knowledge erected by the old professors of medicine who were happy to worship Galen and Hippocrates. For research, he needed human bodies.

Shortly after returning to Louvain, Andrew Vesalius and his friend found the almost complete corpse of the executed criminal, left under open sky. The opportunity presented itself was too good to pass up. That night, Vesalius stole the body, kidnapped it, and dissected it into a skeleton, which he then used as a visual aid. In order not to arouse suspicion, he made up a story that he brought it from Paris. Conducting demonstrative dissections for students, Vesalius in Louvain actually became an informal teacher of anatomy. In 1537, at age 22, he received a bachelor's degree in medicine.

Andrei Vesalius: biography of a scientist

The young doctor wanted to become a doctor. To do this, he needed to obtain the appropriate qualifications. To this end, he entered the University of Padua in northern Italy. The professors quickly realized that Vesalius was an exceptional student. Almost immediately, they allowed him to take his final exams. The gifted young man received his doctorate just in time for his twenty-third birthday. The teachers immediately elected him professor of anatomy and surgery.

Andrew Vesalius will write his main works in Padua. He keenly felt the need for illustrations and visual aids which could help students understand anatomy. Vesalius used them during autopsies. In the first year of his professorship, in 1538, he published Tabulae anatomicae sex - "Six Anatomical Tables". The illustrative illustrations were accompanied by notes made during his first public autopsy in Padua by Andrei Vesalius. The contribution to the anatomy of the scientist is undeniable. He made up schematic drawings liver, venous and arterial system, as well as the skeleton. The book instantly became very popular. She shamelessly copied.

In 1539, the anatomical studies of Vesalius received the support of the judge of Padua. He became interested in the work of the scientist and began to supply him with the bodies of executed criminals for autopsy. By this time, it had become apparent to Vesalius that Galen's anatomy was incorrect. However, the refutation of prevailing ideas is a difficult and sometimes dangerous business. Even in more recent times, all too often new ideas had to fight for their right to exist, even if they were supported by solid evidence. Vesalius, on the other hand, had to refute the orthodox views that had prevailed for 1300 years.

In the work "Six Anatomical Tables", instead of describing his modern observations in the course of research, the scientist made concessions to tradition. Andrew Vesalius presented the liver in a medieval form - in the form of a five-lobed flower. He depicted the heart and aorta as Galen described them - these were the organs of monkeys, not people. However, in the skeleton, he managed to make revolutionary, albeit subtle, changes. Vesalius showed a human jaw consisting of one, not two bones, as Galen incorrectly claimed.

Bloodletting Letter

In addition to this mini-mutiny, Vesalius also took part in the controversy about venosection, or bloodletting. This technique has been regularly used to treat or alleviate the symptoms of patients. Doctors argued about where to cut the vein - near the site of injury or at a distance from it. The discussion heated up because doctors relied on the Arabic translation of Galen's writings - his original works in Greek have not been available in Europe since Roman times. However, the fall of Constantinople changed this situation. And the work of Galen could again be studied in the original. Doctors have found that the Greek text sometimes diverges from Arabic translation which they have been using for so long.

In 1539, at the age of 24, Vesalius wrote a letter about bloodletting. Without siding with any revolutionary change, he again broke with conventional wisdom by recounting his own observations rather than quoting classical texts. Vesalius was now determined to seek the truth on his own, rather than relying on the work of others.

The emergence of a new anatomy

In 1540, at the age of 25, Andrew Vesalius began work on an illustrated anatomy textbook De humini corporus fabrica ("On the structure of the human body"). This book became his most significant work. Vesalius took Padua in 1543. He traveled to Basel, Switzerland to complete the preparation of the book for publication.

On the Structure of the Human Body was an impressive work of 700 pages in seven volumes. Her visual impact - over 270 breathtaking illustrations - has been enormous. The second volume, for example, features stunningly detailed human images, layer by layer of illustrations showing the muscular structure of the body. These drawings are probably the most famous medical images in history.

It is difficult to overestimate the importance of the book written by Andrei Vesalius. The contribution to medicine was enormous. In addition, the work has become milestone in the history of art. Unfortunately, the name of the artist who worked with the scientist remained unknown. The images were accompanied by a description of how the muscles worked.

It is not surprising that, given the richness of the illustrations and the large volume, the book was a costly acquisition. It was intended for doctors, libraries and aristocrats. Realizing that others might be interested in his work, the author simultaneously released a practical, more accessible book with fewer drawings called Epitome. Andrew Vesalius in "Epitome" used much more for illustrations male bodies than female, probably because there were significantly more male criminals executed than female.

Fabrica became the ancestor of the modern science of human anatomy. She decisively broke with Galen and Hippocrates. Andrei Vesalius based his discoveries only on what he actually saw during autopsies, and not on what he expected to see. Here are just a few of his statements:

• There is no bone at the base of the heart. Her description of Galen actually referred to the cartilage at the base of the heart of deer and other animals, which hardened as the beast aged.
• The sternum is made up of three, not seven parts, as Galen claimed based on the autopsies performed on monkeys.
• The septum of the heart is not porous. It has no holes.
• The vena cava originates in the heart, not in the liver, as Galen claimed.
• There is no such organ as the rete mirabile, the "wonderful plexus" of internal arteries that supposedly led from the heart to the brain.
• Men and women have an equal number of ribs. The representatives of the stronger sex do not have a missing rib, as was commonly believed.
• Men and women have the same number of teeth. Galen argued that the former had more of them.

Most readers received the book positively. It has become a desktop for serious anatomists and doctors. However, some physicians and scientists felt threatened, as they built their careers on Galen's work, and lashed out at Vesalius.

For example, Jacob Silvius, who taught Andrei in Paris, described his former student as a brazen and illiterate slanderer who treacherously attacked his teacher with aggressive lies, again and again distorting the truth of nature. In saying this, he may have taken revenge on his student, who had previously said that Sylvius's methods of teaching, which consisted of studying the corpses of cats and dogs, and not people, were not capable of leading to progress in the science of human anatomy.

Andrew Vesalius dedicated "On the Structure of the Human Body" to Emperor Charles V. He also presented him with a special copy printed on parchment. Vesalius dedicated the Epitome to Charles's son, Prince Philip.

court physician

When the emperor noticed a book authored by Andrei Vesalius, the biography of the scientist took another turn - he was appointed doctor of the imperial family. He resigned his duties as a professor at Padua, becoming the fifth representative of the Vesalius dynasty, who was in the service of the court. As a life doctor, he had to serve in the army. When the war began, Vesalius was sent to the battlefield as a surgeon. Accustomed to working with corpses, he struggled to operate on living patients. Experienced surgeon Daza Chacon helped him learn how to quickly perform amputations.

In the winter of 1543, Vesalius came to Italy to perform in and then in the spring of 1544 returned to military service. He became an excellent surgeon. One of Vesalius' court duties was to embalm the corpses of wealthy nobles who died in battle. This allowed him to make further anatomical studies, take notes, and make observations.

Peace was declared in mid-1544. And Andrew Vesalius, the surgeon, returned to take care of the emperor and his court in a more comfortable environment. His reputation continued to grow as he received letters from doctors throughout Europe asking for advice in the most difficult cases.

In 1556, Emperor Charles V transferred power to his son Philip. In gratitude to Vesalius, who was 41 years old, for his faithful service, Charles granted him a lifetime pension and the aristocratic title of Count Palatine. The court physician continued to work, now in the service of Philip.

Pilgrimage

Andrew Vesalius accompanied Philip to Madrid, but he did not enjoy life there. Spanish physicians treated diseases by relying on the movements of the planets. The dissection of human bodies was prohibited. It all seemed rather backward. In addition, Philip gave preference to traditional medical methods of treatment, rather than modern scientific ones. It became clear to Vesalius that he would never become the chief physician of the ruler.

In 1561, the professor of anatomy, Gabriele Fallopius, who held former place Andrew at the University of Padua, sent him a copy of a book he had written called Observationes Anatomicae. In it he commented on "On the Structure of the Human Body", pointing out in a friendly manner some of the discrepancies between Vesalius's work and his own later observations. He also made it clear that he was seriously ill.

Fallopius died in 1564. The department of anatomy in Padua became vacant. That same year, Vesalius left Spain on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Various surviving sources state that he was sent by Philip to make a pilgrimage as a token of penance. The emperor allegedly made such a decision after a noble family informed the revolutionary anatomist about the autopsy of a nobleman, whose heart was still beating.

All these reports rely on a single source - a letter allegedly written in 1565 by the diplomat Hubert Languet. It was most likely fabricated 50 years after the death of the anatomist. Andrew Vesalius, whose biography is not tainted by such facts (there are no primary documents confirming the charges against him), probably went on a pilgrimage trick in order to leave Philip's court in Spain unhindered and then return to Padua.

Personal life and death

In 1544, Vesalius married the daughter of a wealthy adviser in Brussels, Anna van Hamme. They had one child, a girl who was born in 1545. Her parents named her Anna. The family lived together most of the time. But when Vesalius went on his pilgrimage to Jerusalem, his wife and daughter returned to Brussels.

The scientist reached Jerusalem, where he received a letter with an invitation to accept the Department of Anatomy and Surgery at the University of Padua. Unfortunately, Andrew Vesalius, short biography which was tragically cut short, never returned to Padua. His journey from Jerusalem was marred by violent storms. By the time the ship reached port on the Greek island of Zakynthos, Vesalius was desperately ill. He died a few days later. Andrei Vesalius, the founder of scientific anatomy, has died at the age of 49. This happened on October 15, 1564. He was buried in Zakynthos.

One of the iconic figures of the Renaissance in the natural sciences was the Flemish anatomist and physician Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564). Scientific anatomy began with him.

Male muscles, front view, c.54.k.12, pg.181 http://www.bl.uk/learning/images/bodies/large1695.html

Muscles of a man, seen from the back, c.54.k.12, pg.197 http://www.bl.uk/learning/images/bodies/large1697.html

Jaw Anatomy, c.54.k.12, pg.36 http://www.bl.uk/learning/images/bodies/large1693.html

Brain, c.54.k.12, pg.606 http://www.bl.uk/learning/images/bodies/large1699.html

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By denying the authority of Galen, as well as by his struggle with the church, which forbade anatomy, Vesalius gained many enemies. His opponents, who adhered to the traditions of medieval scholastic medicine, achieved the expulsion of the scientist from Padua.

Driven to despair, Vesalius burned some of his manuscripts and materials. In 1544 he accepted an offer to become the court physician of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. In 1555, the second edition of On the Structure of the Human Body was published.

P after renunciation Charles V from the throne, Vesalius entered the service of his son Philip II, the king of Spain. Philip, unlike Charles, did not like Vesalius. Under Philip, the scientist was falsely accused of dissecting a living person who was in lethargy. The Spanish Inquisition sentenced Vesalius to death. However, thanks to the intercession of Philip II, the death penalty was replaced by a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Vesalius died on his way back from Jerusalem, at the age of 50, being sick from a shipwreck on the island of Zante.

Frontispiece of the 1642 edition:
Vesalius, Andreas. Librorum Andreae Vesalii Bruxellensis De humani corporis fabrica epitome/ cum annotationibus Nicolai Fontani Amstelredamensis. - Amstelodami : apud Ioannem Ianssonium, 1642.
Book height 37 cm.

What contribution to science was made by Vesalius Andreas, you will learn from this article.

Andreas Vesalius contributions to biology briefly

Andreas Vesalius(years of life 1514 - 1564) was a famous physician of the Middle Ages. He is the founder of anatomy and entered the history of critical care medicine as the author of the first written description of the tracheostomy operation, which he performed during an experiment on an animal for the purpose of artificial ventilation of the lungs in 1543. Andreas Vesalius whose achievements became the impetus for the development of many modern sciences made many more discoveries.

In 1543, Andreas Vesalius published his famous work entitled On the Structure of the Human Body. The book contained not only text, but demonstrative pictures. But the most important thing is that in the work the doctor pointed out and corrected more than 200 mistakes of the then-famous scientist Galen, whose authority suffered greatly after that. It was the work "On the structure of the human body" that laid the foundation for the development of modern anatomy.

Andreas Vesalius contributions to anatomy consisted mainly in the fact that he compiled anatomical terminology in Latin. The scientist removed from the terminology all the words that remained from the Middle Ages, and minimized all terms of Greek origin. The medic also described a technique for digesting the bones in order to obtain a quality skeleton for study. He managed to create the foundation for the development of surgery and anatomy in the future. His graphic methods disproved the relationship of medicine with astrology. All studies of Vesalius were based on autopsies of dead people, which was previously very strongly criticized by the church.

Andreas Vesalius contribution to medicine is also based on the following statements, which contradicted the theses of the scientist Galen, which were widespread at that time:

• The bone at the base of the heart is missing.
• The human sternum consists of 3, not 7 parts, as according to Galen (he made his discoveries on the basis of the autopsy of monkeys).
• The cardiac septum has a non-porous structure, since there are no holes in it.
• The vena cava does not begin in the liver, as Galen claimed, but in the heart.
• Vesalius denied the existence of such an organ as the "rete mirabile" (wonderful plexus) - internal arteries that supposedly led from the brain to the heart.
• Women and men have the same number of ribs.
• The doctor denied the existence of a missing rib in men.
• Women and men have the same number of teeth (Galen believed that men have more teeth).

Andreas Vesalius discoveries

Andreas Vesalius was the first person to describe an aneurysm. He also brought back the forgotten method of the physician Hippocrates - the method of drainage of chest emphysema. Even in his student years, the scientist described the femur and discovered the seminal vessels. Here is another example of what Andreas Vesalius did for science, or rather for anatomical terminology: he introduced into it such new words as choana, anvil in the inner ear, alveolus, mitral valve of the heart.