Cartography. The meaning of cartography in modern society. Types of geoimages

The origins of cartography date back to ancient times. Even in primitive society, long before the advent of writing, schematic drawings (drawings) of the location of hunting and fishing areas with directions to them, etc. appeared. These drawings were depicted on rocks, cave walls, birch bark, bone or clay plates. So, in Siberia, along the banks of the Yenisei, drawings of “scribes” were found on the rocks. Among the most ancient is a Bronze Age rock drawing (II millennium BC) in Northern Italy, a cartographic drawing on a silver vase found during excavations near the city of Maikop in the North Caucasus (III millennium BC), etc. The oldest surviving map was discovered during excavations near the city of Babylon (2200 BC).

The scientific origins of cartography originate in ancient Greece, where geographical maps were compiled that took into account the sphericity of the Earth. This was facilitated by the expansion of colonial possessions and trade, the campaigns of Alexander the Great (IV century BC), which were accompanied by geographical discoveries. The first scientific proof of the sphericity of the Earth was given by Aristotle (4th century BC). Based on the doctrine of the sphericity of the Earth, the outstanding ancient Greek astronomer and geographer Eratosthenes first determined the size of the Earth (III century BC). The astronomer Hipparchus (II century BC) suggested that when creating maps, apply a degree grid built according to astronomical observations of latitudes and longitudes. He was the first to use the term "geographical latitude" and "geographical longitude", introduced the division of the circle into 360˚ and developed a number of projections for star maps. At the same time, the first globe was made.

The scientific foundations of cartography were laid by the famous ancient Greek mathematician, astronomer, cartographer and geographer Claudius Ptolemy (3rd century AD).

IN Ancient Rome maps were widely used for military and economic purposes for transport links with remote provinces and countries. There are road maps designed to be used on the go. A copy of one of these maps, found in the 16th century, has survived to our time. German historian Peutinger and in the literature therefore received the name "Peitinger's table". It is a parchment sheet 30 cm wide and 7 m long.

Cartography of the Middle Ages (V middle of the XVII centuries)

The early Middle Ages (V-XIV centuries) in Europe were characterized by the dominance of the church. This period is characterized by monastic maps, which were compiled by monks in monasteries and were mainly illustrations for the Bible. The sphericity of the Earth was rejected, the Earth was taken as a plane, in the center of which Jerusalem was placed.

At the same time, in the countries of the Arab East and Armenia, cartography achieved certain successes, primarily in the preservation of monuments of ancient times, in the translation of the "Guide to Geography" by C. Ptolemy and others. The maps compiled by Arab and Armenian cartographers were distinguished by their realistic content.

In this regard, at the end of the XIV century. nautical compass charts - portolans - became widespread. These maps depicted in detail the coastline, the moorings of ships. To plot the ship's course, a special grid of compass lines was drawn on them (with directions up to 28 points). A linear scale was placed on the maps to measure distances. However, compass charts were not suitable for sailing the oceans, so navigators turned to globes, which from the end of the 15th century. began to be made for the purposes of navigation. One of the first was the globe of the German cartographer and astronomer Beheim (1492). G. Mercator developed several geographical projections, including a conformal cylindrical projection for the purposes of navigation, prepared a large collection of maps, giving it the name "Atlas", published after his death in 1595.

Of great importance for the development of cartography was the invention in the 15th century. engraving and card printing. At the end of the XVII century. English scientist I. Newton proved that the Earth is not a ball, but an ellipsoid of revolution. Russian cartography has its own original history, characterized by a state orientation. With the formation of the Russian centralized state at the end of the 15th century. there was also a need to create a detailed map of the country. Numerous geographical maps, or, as they were then called "drawings", and descriptions for them began to be created for various territories of the country, and subsequently served as the source material for compiling consolidated maps of Russia. Of particular note is the outstanding cartographer of his time from Tobolsk S. Remezov, who summarized a large geographical material in maps, at the end of the 16th century. compiled the "Drawing Book of Siberia", the first Russian geographical atlas of 23 large-format maps, giving a versatile description of the natural conditions, economy and ethnography of Siberia.

Cartography of the new time

Further development of capitalist relations in Zap. Europe, expansion economic ties, the colonization of new territories increased the need for new maps of various scales and purposes, the introduction of more accurate methods of surveying, compiling and using maps. Cartographic work occupied a prominent place in the activities of a number of academies of sciences (Paris, Berlin, St. Petersburg).

At the end of the XVIII century. A lot of work was done by the astronomer C. Cassini to create a geodetic basis for topographic maps for the territory of France using triangulation, which significantly increased the accuracy of the maps. This experience of using triangulation in mapping later became widespread in many European countries. On this basis, in the XIX century. Great work began on the creation of maps for military purposes. In many countries, special military topographic units were organized, which then acquired the status of state cartographic services. As a result of their work, by the middle of the XIX century. many European countries published topographic maps of their territories depicting the relief using the stroke method.

Increasing requirements for topographic maps, in particular, in determining the heights of terrain points, angles of inclination led in the second half of the 19th century. to the application of the method of contour lines for the image of the relief. As a result, to late XIX V. many European countries, including Russia, have compiled updated, more accurate and larger-scale topographic maps with detailed relief images.

In addition to providing for the army, topographic maps began to be widely used for civilian purposes when conducting various scientific research and compiling thematic maps. Thematic maps (climatic, geological, etc.) appeared as early as the 17th century, but they were few in number. In the 19th century in all major maritime countries (including Russia) great importance acquired the compilation of navigational charts for the purposes of navigation, special hydrographic services were created. Many sciences have accumulated a large amount of factual material, which, when displayed on maps, made it possible to identify the relationships of the studied phenomena among themselves and with the environment and establish certain patterns in nature and society. So, A. Humboldt in 1817, on the basis of maps with isotherms, established patterns of temperature distribution on the globe. In the second half of the XIX century. many sciences (geology, meteorology, soil science, oceanography, economic geography, etc.) began to widely use thematic maps in their research. Maps made it possible to identify patterns of placement and interrelations of the studied phenomena, as well as their development and forecasting. Thus, since the 19th century Cartography is characterized by a broad development of thematic mapping.

When compiling various maps and atlases in the XIX century. and subsequently, cartographic and descriptive materials of expeditions organized by geographical societies, including the Russian Geographical Society, organized in 1845, were widely used.

In the 19th century In many countries, for the commercial publication of maps and atlases, along with small map publishing houses, large specialized map publishing companies were created, including A. Ilyin's cartographic publishing house in St. Petersburg (1859).

The development of Russian cartography in the XVIII-XIX centuries. Russian cartography under Peter I takes the path of scientific development. The main achievements of cartography under Peter I were: training for cartographic surveys and mapping; conducting systematic state surveys to create a general map of Russia, organizing expeditions for mapping the seas; publication of maps.

A great contribution to the development of cartography in Russia at the beginning of the 18th century. was introduced by the outstanding cartographer of that time, Obersecretary of the Senate I.K. Kirilov - the head of all work on mapping the country at that time. He advocated the development of Russian cartography independent of foreign, for displaying his country on maps in its entirety, he planned to create a large "Atlas of the All-Russian Empire" in three volumes of 120 sheets each, but due to his early death he managed to print and prepare for printing only 37 maps .

The department has published more than 250 maps, reflecting the results of government surveys and various surveys. Great influence on the development of cartography in the XVIII century. provided by the great Russian scientist M.V. Lomonosov, who headed the Geographic Department since 1757. He did a lot to train cartographic and geodetic personnel, to improve the accuracy of surveys and cartographic work, to update and improve the compilation of maps. An outstanding cartographic work of the mid-19th century. a three-verst map of European Russia (1:126,000) appeared, on which the relief is depicted by the method of steepness strokes. From the second half of the XIX century. on large-scale topographic maps of Russia, horizontal lines began to be used instead of strokes to display the relief.

In the 19th century in Russia, as well as in the countries of foreign Europe, thematic mapping began to develop more and more widely. Thematic maps were created for various branches of knowledge. Of particular importance were the works of V.V. Dokuchaev on soil mapping, A.A. Tillo on compiling hypsometric maps of European Russia, and P.P. Semenov-Tian-Shansky on mapping the economy and population.

Modern Cartography

The priority measures were: the transition to the metric system of measures, the development of the layout and nomenclature of maps and a new scale series, the adoption of a single projection for all topographic maps, the introduction of a system of flat rectangular coordinates and common symbols. Since 1930, aerial photography has been used to create topographic maps, and somewhat later, methods for creating maps in office conditions using various stereophotogrammetric devices were introduced.

In the post-war period, a lot of work was done to find cartographic projections (F.N. Krassovsky, A huge role in the accelerated mapping of the country belongs to the use of aerial methods, more advanced aerial photography devices and material processing using stereophotogrammetric devices.

development in the post-war period was the publication of school maps (including contour maps) and atlases. An urgent task of cartography is to provide maps for mass tourism.

The successes achieved by Soviet cartography are largely due to the outstanding Soviet cartographer K.A. Salishchev, the founder of Soviet economic cartography N.N. Baransky and their students.

Development of cartography in Belarus. The first cartographic information about the territory of Belarus appeared in the II century. (map of European Sarmatia by K. Ptolemy). A native of the Belarusian land Tadeusz Makovsky in the 16th century. on the initiative of Radziwill Sirotka, he compiled the first medium-scale map of the territory of Belarus (1:300,000). The origins of thematic mapping in Belarus date back to the beginning of the 17th century. This is evidenced by the map of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (1613) preserved in the archives of Lithuania. During the period of general land surveying (2nd half of the 18th and 1st half of the 19th centuries), master plans for counties, maps and atlases of provinces were drawn up. Based on surveys made by the Corps of Military Topographers, in 1865-1871. maps of 1:84,000 and 1:42,000 scales were compiled for the entire territory of Belarus, which served as a topographical basis for creating thematic maps.

The beginning of integrated mapping of Belarus dates back to the 2nd half of the 19th century, when hypsometric soil and hydrological surveys began, on the basis of which general geographic and thematic maps of European Russia, including Belarus, were compiled. Of the comprehensive atlases of Russia released before World War I, which depict the territory of Belarus, one should single out the “Economic and Statistical Atlas of European Russia” (1851). For the first time, a detailed image of the relief of Belarus was given by the Russian cartographer A.A. 1:2,520,000 (1889). The first sectoral complex atlas of Belarus was the “Climatic Atlas of Belarus” (author A.I. Kaigorodov, 1927. In the pre-war years, a number of general geographical and thematic maps of the BSSR were published: a physical map of the BSSR at a scale of 1: 500,000 (1908, 1933), a physical map of the BSSR scale 1:600,000 (1940), map of Quaternary deposits of Belarus in scale 1:1,500,000 (1936, 1941). was transferred to Minsk. With the transfer of the factory, work began on a comprehensive atlas of Belarus. The attack of Nazi Germany on the USSR in 1941 interrupted work on the atlas and it was not published. Already in the first postwar years, as a result of complex geological and hydrological maps: geolithological, hydrogeological, geomorphological, minerals and Quaternary deposits In 1948, a soil map was published at a scale of 1:2,000 0 00 and then at a scale of 1:200,000. In 1957, M.M. Tsapenko compiled a map of the Quaternary deposits of the BSSR at a scale of 1:1,000,000, V.A. Dementiev - a geomorphological map at a scale of 1:2,500,000. soil studies of the farms of the republic, large-scale soil maps and agrochemical cartograms of collective farms and state farms were compiled, and on their basis - soil maps of the regions. The economic maps of industry and agriculture of the republic are being studied. The results of the development of cartography in Belarus for 40 years of Soviet power were summed up by the Atlas of the BSSR, published in 1958, the first comprehensive atlas of the Union Republic of the USSR, which characterizes nature, population, economy and the service sector.

In 1963, the Institute of Linguistics of the Academy of Sciences of Belarus compiled the “Dealectological Atlas of the Belarusian language”, and in 1969 “Linguistic geography and grouping of Belarusian dialects”, the compilers of which were awarded the State Prize of the USSR in 1971. Maps are published for high school, as well as for a wide range of readers, including the "Atlas of Highways of the Byelorussian SSR" (1st edition of 1971), tourist schemes of the Byelorussian SSR (1973,1974, etc.), Minsk Region (1976), "Protected objects of nature of the Belarusian SSR" (1973, 1975). In 1970-1980 a series of medium-scale maps of the nature of Belarus has been published: a tectonic map at a scale of 1:500,000, ed. R.G. Goretsky (1974), for which its authors were awarded the State Prize of the BSSR; soil map at a scale of 1:600,000, Ed. T.N. Kulakovskaya and P.P. Rogovoy (1977), map of vegetation at a scale of 1:1,000,000, ed. I.D.Yurkevich (1979), geological maps of pre-Quaternary deposits, 1:500,000 scale, ed. A.S. Makhnach and Quaternary deposits, ed. G.I. Goretsky (1983), landscape map at a scale of 1:600,000, ed. G.I.Martsinkevich (1984) and a geomorphological map at a scale of 1:500,000, ed. B.N. Gursky (1990).

A great contribution to the development of small-scale thematic mapping are maps (mainly on a scale of 1:2,500,000 and 1:4,000,000), which have been placed since the 1960s in encyclopedias, among which the “Belarusian Savets Encyclopedia” in 12 volumes should be singled out. , 5-volume "Encyclopedia of the Nature of Belarus", 18-volume "Belarusian Encyclopedia". In 6070 20th century in the traditional cartography of Belarus, when preparing maps for publication, drawing and engraving on plastics began to be introduced, in 8090. - the use of new computer technologies (non-traditional cartography), maps appeared combined with space mapping of the terrain.

With the declaration of independence of the republic, the Belarusian cartographic school rose to a new, more high level development associated with the introduction of the production of computer technologies. After the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, maps of radiation contamination of the territory of Belarus were published at a scale of 1:1,000,000 and 1:500,000 (1993, 1995) and at a scale of 1:100,000 for individual regions. In 1996, the atlas "Belarus" was published, ed. S.A. Polsky, whose maps show the development of the Belarusian ethnos, starting from the population census of 1897 and until 1995. In 1998, the Atlas of the Republic of Belarus was published in the Belarusian language, ed. R.A. Zhmoydyak (1st edition 1990), as study guide in geography for a secondary school. In 2004, a new edition of the atlas called "Geography of Belarus" was published. The maps of the atlas characterize the nature, population, economy, social and cultural sphere of the republic.

A significant event in domestic cartography was the release in 2002 of the “National Atlas of Belarus”, prepared according to the Decree of the President of the Republic of Belarus RUE “Belkartography”, which is part of the Committee on Land Resources, Geodesy and Cartography under the Council of Ministers of the Republic of Belarus. The Atlas, as it were, summed up the development of cartography in Belarus in the 20th century. The content of the atlas reflects the totality of modern knowledge about the territory, nature, population, economy, culture, foreign relations and history of the Republic of Belarus. The atlas is also available in electronic form and is integral part information system of the Republic of Belarus, it creates the necessary scientific, methodological and information support for public administration and development.

At present, RUE "Belkartography", private publishing houses "Trivium", "Evroferlag", "Kvadrograf" publish a large number of different cartographic products: educational maps and atlases for secondary schools, maps for universities, road atlases of Belarus and various regions of Europe and Asia , tourist-excursion, reference maps and plans of regions, districts, cities of Belarus, etc.

The development of cartography in modern times abroad. After the First World War, work was intensified on the international millionth map of the world and the creation of national atlases in a number of countries. After the Second World War, certain changes took place in the organization of cartographic and geodetic work. If before the Second World War cartographic and geodetic work was mainly carried out by military departments in their interests, then later many types of work were transferred to the jurisdiction of civilian institutions. In many foreign countries, thematic and integrated mapping, the study of the resources of the World Ocean and its mapping, and the creation of protection maps are becoming increasingly important. environment, publication of national and regional atlases. Develop international connections on cartography, which led to the creation in 1961 of the International Cartographic Association, whose chairman for a number of years was K.A. Salishchev. Prior to this, scientific relations in the field of cartography were carried out within the framework of international geographical congresses, and since 1927 also the International Geographical Union.

The main stages in the history of the development of cartography

INTRODUCTION

cartography geographic russian

The history of cartography is an inseparable part of the history of civilization. Its knowledge forms the professional culture of the cartographer, allows you to understand the key points and stages in the development of science - which is especially important - to correctly assess the current trends in its progress.

Historical progress in cartography covers the stages of development of cartographic tools, methods and technologies, ideas and concepts, as well as the history of the creation of specific works: maps, atlases, globes.

The entire centuries-old history of cartography as a science, technology and production shows that it has developed in accordance with the demands of society. This was connected with trade and navigation, with the tasks of managing the country and its economy, with the development of the army, with scientific discoveries and travel - in a word, the main factor in the progress of cartography has always been the need of society for maps as a means of knowing the world around us, managing it, fixing, visualizing and transmitting spatial information.

The basis of any historical research is historical sources - those factual data that have come down to our days from past eras in the development of human society. For the history of cartography, maps, geographical works and other written sources, direct evidence of the past, are of particular value.

The study of the history of cartography makes it possible to understand its current situation and tasks, and to see more clearly the prospects for its subsequent development. The presentation of the history of cartography is built in accordance with the general historical periodization, since the development of cartography has always been determined by the needs of life, the demands of production, which have changed greatly under the conditions of various socio-economic formations.

Therefore, the relevance of the chosen topic is quite relevant at the present time.

The purpose of the work: a comprehensive study, generalization and characterization of the main stages in the history of the development of cartography.

The work consists of an introduction, the main part, a conclusion and a list of references.

CHAPTER 1. CARTOGRAPHY IN THE PRIMARY AND ANCIENT WORLD

1 Cartographic images of primitive peoples

It is believed that cartographic drawings, the first map-like pictograms, appeared even before writing was invented.

They were needed by people in order to consolidate the grains of knowledge they had gained about the world around them and to transfer them to each other. It was necessary to plot the position of objects on the ground and show the distances between them. Mark hunting and fishing areas. Designate parking, trails between them, pastures. Later, maps became necessary for measuring land, designing large structures: irrigation canals and pyramids, for extracting precious metals, determining directions on the ground, navigation routes and, of course, for conducting military operations and creating defensive fortifications.

The simplest cartographic drawings were already known in the conditions of primitive society, even before the birth of writing. This is evidenced by the primitive cartographic images of the peoples, who by the time they were discovered or studied were at low levels. community development and did not have a written language (small peoples of Siberia and the Far East, the Eskimos of North America, the Indians of America, the Micronesians of Oceania, and many others). These drawings, made on wood, bark, animal skin, etc., served to satisfy the needs that arose from the conditions of the general labor of people: to indicate hunting places, migration routes, etc. They were limited to known places, in the transmission of which the images were believable.

Very interesting are the original "sea charts" - aids for navigation among the inhabitants of the Marshall Islands. The shells, denoting the islands, were fixed on a frame of palm leaf cuttings, and the position of the cuttings indicated the front of the sea swell raised by the prevailing winds, and its changes when passing through the chain of islands. It was this phenomenon that was taken into account by the islanders to determine the direction to the islands when they were out of sight.

Cartographic drawings of the 3rd and 2nd millennium BC have survived to this day. e. Amazingly detailed is a Bronze Age (mid-2nd millennium BC) rock art in the Camanina Valley (Northern Italy) - a plan showing cultivated fields, paths, streams and irrigation canals. It belongs to the oldest cadastral plans.

But in terms of its age, the drawing on a silver vase dating back to the 3rd millennium BC is especially remarkable. e. and found during excavations of one of the mounds near Maikop (Northern Caucasus); it is now kept in the Hermitage. The drawing depicts a mountain range, from where two rivers flow into a lake (or sea) originate, a forest is shown on the mountains, various animals are shown around the lake and at the foot of the mountains; with a perspective image of mountains and trees, the outlines of the rivers are transferred in plan. Its local origin is not ruled out, and in this case, the history of cartography of the peoples of the USSR originates from it (Bagrov Leo. History of the development of cartography. - M., Tsentrpoligraf, 2004. - 320 p.).

2 Cartographic images of the countries of the East

Cartographic drawings are also known in the slave-owning societies of antiquity - among the peoples of the Ancient East, who lived in the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, as well as in Egypt. Irrigation agriculture was widespread in these countries, which required the construction of an extensive system of irrigation and drainage facilities: canals, dams, reservoirs, created crowding of the population and generated a high value of plots of land suitable for agriculture. Under these conditions (during the construction of irrigation facilities, establishing the boundaries of land allotments, calculating land taxes), there was a need for descriptions of the area. As evidenced by the found documents, such descriptions sometimes took the form of cartographic drawings. Construction big cities with fortifications, palaces and temples required the preparation of their plans. In addition to drawings of small areas of the area, images, albeit very primitive ones, of the world known at that time have come down to us. Trade relations and exchange with foreign countries and numerous campaigns of conquest contributed to the expansion of the geographical horizon and encouraged the consolidation of acquired knowledge.

Relatively many finds were found during excavations in Babylonia and other countries of Mesopotamia, where clay tiles (“tablets”) served as writing material, which acquired incomparable durability after firing.

The oldest of the finds, dating from about 2400-2200 years. BC e., with a schematic representation of Mesopotamia, shows a river flowing along a plain between two mountainous countries; when it flows into the sea, the river forms a delta; the positions of the cardinal points are marked with circles.

Among the "engineering" drawings, a fragment of a tablet with a plan of the city of Nippur (in Mesopotamia) has been preserved, which shows the walls and gates of the city, the most important buildings, canals and other objects.

There are also single drawings that reproduce the speculative ideas of the ancients about the structure and limits of the world. Among them, the Babylonian tablet is characteristic in text, it depicts the Earth in the form of a flat circle washed by the ocean, called the "Bitter River". In the north there are mountains from which the river descends. Euphrates. The Gulf (Persian) extends inland. Babylon is placed in the center of the earth. To the northeast of it, Assyria is marked, in the north adjoining the country of Urartu. In addition to Babylon, several other cities are also indicated, marked with ovals. Beyond the ocean lie "seven islands", symbolizing unknown worlds. This concept, representing the world in the form of a disk surrounded by the ocean, with the state or religious center of the country, was widespread and is found even on the "maps" of the early Middle Ages. Papyrus, which the Egyptians used to write, is less durable than clay tablets. Therefore, the number of currently known Egyptian "maps" is very small. Among the surviving plans of gold mines in the Eastern Desert of the time of Pharaoh Ramses II (circa 1250 BC), which combined the planned image with the profile drawing of the mountains - a technique that survived to a certain extent until the 18th century (#"justify">.3 Cartography and geography in ancient Greece and the Hellenistic countries

Like many branches of knowledge, the scientific origins of modern cartography and geography originate in ancient Greece. The Greeks established the sphericity of the Earth and calculated its dimensions. They own the first cartographic projections and the introduction of meridians and parallels into scientific use. They are the creators of geographical maps in the strictly scientific sense of the term.

The development of geographical knowledge in Greece was facilitated by the colonization movement, which was especially strong in the 8th-6th centuries. BC e. It led to the formation of Greek colonies in a vast area from the eastern coast of the Iberian Peninsula to the northern shores of the Black Sea. These colonies spread over almost the entire world known to the Greeks. The further accumulation of geographical knowledge was facilitated by the campaigns of Alexander the Great (334-323 BC), accompanied by major geographical discoveries. According to Eratosthenes, the creator of the first image of the Earth was Anaximander of Miletus (circa 610-546 BC), one of the first ancient Greek materialist philosophers. In the 5th century BC e. cartographic images of the Earth cease to be single phenomena in Greece. The historian Herodotus (circa 484-425 BC), in his work on the history of the Greco-Persian wars, speaks directly about the many images of the inhabited Earth (which the Greeks called "bypassing the Earth") and describes one of them, which Aristagoras , tyrant of Miletus, took with him about 500 BC. e. to Sparta, where he tried to persuade King Cleomenes to participate in the uprising of the Greeks of Asia Minor against Persian domination. Aristagoras “conversed with Cleomenes with a copper plate in his hands; on the board were carved the bypass of the whole Earth, all the seas and all the rivers. The comedy Clouds (423 BC) by the famous Athenian playwright and poet Aristophanes already speaks of the map of the universe in the school of Socrates, of how the cities, regions and islands of Greece are depicted on it.

Greek thinkers, who created the first natural science theories about the origin and structure of the world, first imagined the Earth as a round or oval disk floating on the surface of a boundless ocean. But already in the V century. BC e. Parmenides put forward a purely speculative assumption about the sphericity of the Earth. Convincing evidence of this hypothesis was given in the writings of the great scientist of antiquity Aristotle (384-322 BC), who noted that mathematicians who calculated the length of the earth's circumference consider its value to be 400 thousand stadia (i.e., approximately 60 thousand km, which is one and a half times more than the actual size).

The greatest successes in the development of scientific knowledge were achieved in the Hellenistic period (III-I centuries BC), when Alexandria became the largest center of scientific thought with its famous academy, museums and library (the latter contained up to half a million manuscripts). There were laid the scientific foundations of cartography and geography, then a unified science.

The closest to reality determination of the length of the earth's meridian, made in ancient times, belongs to Eratosthenes (276-194 BC), an outstanding astronomer and geographer, head of the Library of Alexandria. He calculated the length of the meridian at 252,000 stadia, which (with a stage length of 157.5 m used in his time) corresponds to 39,700 km, that is, very close to the actual value of the meridian (40,009 km).

A major step in the further improvement of the images of the Earth was made by the greatest astronomer of antiquity Hipparchus (about 190-126 BC), who proposed to build maps on a grid of meridians and parallels, determining the position of points on the earth's surface in latitude and longitude; to designate them, he began to use the division of the circle borrowed from the Babylonians into 360 degrees and then into minutes and seconds.

The development of geography in the Hellenistic countries was summarized by Strabo (about 63 BC - 23 AD). In his Geography in 17 Books, he elaborated on the goals of geographical science as regional studies, systematized a large amount of factual material and characterized for his era general state geographic and cartographic knowledge. With an abundance of written evidence and descriptions, time has not preserved the ancient Greek maps themselves. However, there is indirect evidence of the dignity of these maps - a convex planned image of the environs of Ephesus on coins.

A comparison of the relief on coins and modern maps convinces of their amazing similarity (Salishchev K.A. Fundamentals of cartography. Part of the historical and cartographic materials. - M .: "Nedra", 1948.-152 p.).

4 Cartography in ancient Rome

The development of cartography in ancient Rome was deeply influenced by the use of maps for the needs of practice, to meet the needs of the military and administrative apparatus. The economic and political life of Rome largely depended on transport links with its remote provinces and neighboring countries. A dense network of roads covered the possessions of the Roman state. The depiction of roads on a map could provide a valuable aid for military, administrative, and commercial needs, and such maps were created. By decision of the Senate, under Julius Caesar, measurements of roads were started, marked every mile with stone pillars indicating distances. The results of these measurements, completed under Augustus, allowed Mark Vipsanius Agrippa (circa 63-12 BC) to prepare materials for creating a map of the world known to the Romans, completed after the death of Agrippa (not preserved).

A wonderful adaptation of Roman road maps for use on the road. One of these maps, known as the Peutinger Table (found in 1507 in Augsburg and named after the historian Peitinger, one of its first owners.), copied with some later additions from the original of the 4th century, has survived to this day. . It has the form of a scroll about 7 m long and 1/3 m wide, so that the use of a rolled up map is convenient on the go.

The map depicts the Roman Empire and other countries known at that time from the British Isles to the mouth of the Ganges inclusive. From the north and south, the continents are washed by the ocean. Its content: settlements - cities, fortifications, parking of the Roman legions, road network, rivers, mountains, lakes and forests. For settlements promising conventional signs. Breaks on the roads indicate the position of the stations, the distances between which are signed along the roads. The original map in the form of a stripe seems strange and primitive; the image is intentionally compressed from north to south. This is like a perspective drawing when looking at the flat surface of the Earth from the south. The Mediterranean, Black and other seas are stretched along the map in the form of narrow ribbons. Rivers and roads are forced to follow the same direction. But, given the peculiarity of the construction of the map, it is fair to give it the highest rating - it is remarkable for the details of the image, the abundance of information and its realism.

The land policy of Rome needed to be filmed when organizing new settlements and colonies, when allocating land to veterans (choosing a place, planning settlements, laying out land plots, laying roads, etc.) and in general in the interests of land ownership. A profession of land surveyors arises, for which instructions and manuals are developed that describe the technique of surveying and are accompanied by drawings; these documents have been preserved and from them one can get a clear idea of ​​​​the method of land surveying. Surveyors were also responsible for compiling maps showing settlements, rivers, mountains, roads, land plots, etc. It was ordered to prepare maps of military administrative units on bronze in two copies, one of which was intended for the archive in Rome. These maps of local significance and other survey materials have been lost. Evidence of them has survived only in the form of fragments of maps engraved on the boundary stones found in Orange, and, most importantly, in fragments of a large and very detailed plan of Rome (16X13 m), made on marble under the emperor Septimius Severus (193 - 211 years .).

But in the cartographic sense, the summary scientific works on the cartography of the Ancient World are especially interesting. In the era of the Roman Empire, they reached their peak in the works of Claudius Ptolemy (2nd century AD), a Greek mathematician, astronomer and cartographer who, like Eratosthenes, lived in Alexandria.

His "Guide to Geography" in eight books, undoubtedly belonging to the remarkable creations of ancient culture, for almost fourteen centuries predetermined the development of cartographic science.

“Geography,” said Ptolemy, “is a linear image of the entire now known part of the Earth with everything that relates to it in general ... It depicts positions and outlines using only lines and conventional signs ... All this with the help of mathematics gives us the opportunity to survey the whole Earth in one picture, just as we can survey the vault of heaven in its rotation above our head. Ptolemy, continuing the regional direction in the development of geography, saw its main task in the cartographic image of the Earth.

Realizing that the transfer of a spherical surface to a plane entails inevitable deformations, and criticizing the cylindrical projection, Ptolemy proposed two new projections: conical and pseudoconical in a construction that conveys area ratios well; in an improved form, they are widely used today (#"justify">.5 Cartography in slave China

Chinese cartography also dates back to ancient times. In China, some very important techniques were developed a long time ago and independently of the West, including a rectangular cartographic grid used to locate an object.

In the era of the slave-owning society, geography and cartography formed a separate center of early productive development in China. Although in the written sources of Chinese culture of that time there are references to cartographic activity motivated by military purposes, the discovery during archaeological excavations in 1973 in southern China, near Changsha, of three colored maps on silk in a burial dating from 168 BC, was a complete surprise. era. Two of them, apparently based on surveys in nature, in their content and form anticipate the detailed topographic maps that appeared in Europe many centuries later. The third find is a plan of the city (#"justify">CHAPTER 2. CARTOGRAPHY IN THE MIDDLE AGES

1 Geography and cartography in Armenia and the countries of the Arab Caliphate

The crisis of the ancient slave-owning society, which intensified in the III-IV centuries. n. e., inevitably led to the decline of ancient culture. The death of the Roman Empire (5th century) dealt an especially heavy blow to ancient science.

In Byzantium, the direct successor of the Roman Empire, but developing in a different socio-economic system - feudal social relations, science was put at the service of christian church. Positive knowledge, based on experience and reason and not consistent with the dogmas of theological teachings, was subjected to persecution and persecution as a "pagan" science. Accordingly, the main purpose of geographical maps was to illustrate theological writings and to refute the ancient proofs of the sphericity of the Earth.

In this regard, the "Christian Topography" written in the 6th century is very indicative. Byzantine Kozma Indikoplov (i.e., "Sailor to India") and later in the XII-XIII centuries. widespread in Rus'. Being a merchant, he traveled a lot, but he wrote his work already in his declining years in a monastery. In the description of Ethiopia, Ceylon, India and other countries, Kozma Indikoplov gives extensive and valuable factual information, but, speaking of the universe, he resolutely rejects the sphericity of the Earth as a "delusion".

Among the few witnesses of Byzantine cartography, the remains of a mosaic map on the floor of the Byzantine temple in Madaba (Jordan), dating back to the end of the 6th century, are known; in the surviving part, it depicts the Nile Delta, the Dead Sea, and part of Palestine, including a bird's-eye view of Jerusalem.

Against this background, the progress of geographical knowledge in Armenia and the countries of Arab Caliphate.

Despite the devastation that Armenia was repeatedly subjected to, sandwiched between Byzantium and Iran, the feudal Armenian culture reached in the 5th-7th centuries. high level. A number of ancient Greek works were known in Armenia, among them Ptolemy's Geography.

Based on it and in its likeness, it was created at the beginning of the 7th century. the so-called "Armenian geography", which contained an extensive text that has survived to this day, and at least 15 maps, including a map of the world, unfortunately lost. The text part followed Ptolemy in describing the Earth and its inhabited part, but was original in relation to Armenia and the countries of Asia Minor. The author of "Armenian Geography" notes that it is desirable for him to talk in more detail about its provinces, "although for this you will have to rummage through maps and books." Thus, geographical compositions and maps were not a single phenomenon in Armenia. The significance of “Armenian geography” can be judged from the fact that the work of Ptolemy, which was a scientific revelation for medieval geographers and cartographers of Western Europe, became known there only in the 14th century. - the time of the rise of geographical culture in the countries of the Arab Caliphate. In the VII-VIII centuries. the Arabs extended their conquests to a vast territory, including Spain in the west, and Central Asia and the western part of India in the east. In the newly formed state - the Caliphate - conditions were created that contributed to the flourishing of geography. Detailed descriptions provinces, settlements, agricultural products and crafts were necessary for the collection of taxes and taxes. Geography was seen as "the science of paths and states". Of even greater importance for the accumulation and dissemination of geographical knowledge was the development of trade. These peculiar conditions gave rise to a variety of geographical writings, some of which interpreted geography in a mathematical sense as "the science of latitudes and longitudes." They were based on the "Geography" of Ptolemy, translated into Arabic. The same language was used for inscriptions on maps, described in the history of cartography as "Arabic maps", although their creators came from different parts of the Islamic world.

In general, Arab culture has created an extensive geographical literature, rich in factual material, but has not produced really valuable maps. The collapse of the Caliphate as a single state body led to the withering of Arab cartography. She rose again on already foreign soil, in the writings of the famous Arab scientist al-Idrisi, a native of Ceuta (in Morocco), who studied in Cordoba, but worked in Sicily at the court of the Norman king Roger II (Berlyant A.M. Cartography. - M .: Aspect Press, 2001. 336 p.).

2 Medieval cartography in the Far East

China of the era of feudalism - a vast and powerful state with a strong centralization of power - had favorable conditions for the progress of geographical knowledge and cartography, which had already arisen at the previous, slave-owning stage in the development of Chinese civilization. The general high level of Chinese culture of that time (for example, the use of the compass, the invention of paper in the 2nd century, engraving on wood from the end of the 6th century, etc. testify to it) was reflected in an extensive literature in which geographical works occupied a prominent place. The geographic and statistical descriptions of China by individual administrative divisions were the most widely used - the result of a thorough study of reality. They were accompanied by cartographic images.

Literary sources of the Middle Ages contain information about a number of maps of the country. Pei Xu (223-271, he is called the father of Chinese cartography), holding a high administrative post (similar to the Minister of Public Works, in modern terminology), compiled a map of China on 18 sheets. In the description of the map, which has survived to this day, he outlined the rules and principles for constructing maps, including: the use of subdivided lines, that is, a kind of linear scale; the use of a grid of squares (the prototype of a rectangular grid) for the correct placement and interconnection of various parts of the map; determination of lengths taking into account straightness or curvature of lines; correct orientation of rivers and mountain ranges, etc. Thus, Pei Xu owns one of the earliest manuals on mapping. The square grid was used (without taking into account the sphericity of the Earth) on Chinese maps until the 17th century.

Written sources also report other, later maps, but we have survived from this era as the earliest two maps of China about 0.8 m in height and width, engraved in 1137 on the front and back sides of a stone stele stored in "Forest of Slabs" - Museum of Epigraphy in Xi'an, in Shanxi.

The first printed maps and woodcuts known in the history of cartography date back to the same time (about 1155). Placed in an encyclopedia, it conveys in a schematic representation the northwest of China - the Great Wall of China, the Yellow River (Huang He) with its tributaries, and in the south the Blue River (Yangtze).

In the subsequent history of Chinese cartography, other very detailed maps of the country are known, in particular the administrative map of 1594, which included Korea and Japan, but they were built in an unchanged, traditional manner on a network of squares without taking into account the sphericity of the Earth. Outside of China, these cards were not known and therefore had no effect on general development geographic knowledge of the earth. The idea of ​​the sphericity of the Earth was brought to China from the West; they were reflected in the well-known map of the Chinese Empire in 1717 (scale about 1: 1400,000, trapezoidal projection), for which, along with other sources, astronomical determinations and surveys made at the beginning of the 18th century were used. Catholic missionaries on the orders of Emperor Kangxi. These materials served the Western European cartographers to create reliable maps of China.

Another center of medieval cartography in the Far East was formed in Japan, initially under the influence of Chinese culture. Early references to cartographic activity date back to the 7th century, when cadastral descriptions and the delimitation of agricultural land were undertaken. There are also orders from the central government to local authorities on the provision of maps for the administrative territories they control. In the 8th century Buddhist monk Gyogi made a map of all of Japan, which served until late XVII V. the prototype of subsequent maps of the country, often serving decorative purposes. Maps like Gogi began to improve by the 17th century, when they were used in Western Europe to map the Far East. At the same time, Japanese navigational charts appeared, reflecting the influence of the charts of Portuguese navigators. Also of interest are the preserved large-scale plans of large cities and castle towns of the 17th century. - handwritten and printed, made according to the shooting. Some of them indicated the size of land plots, the names of the owners and served to levy a land tax (Shibanov F.A. Essays on the history of Russian cartography. - Leningrad University Publishing House, 1971. - S. 205 - 216.).

3 Western European cartography in the period before the great geographical discoveries

The early Middle Ages in Western Europe were accompanied by the decline of science. “The Middle Ages developed on a completely primitive basis. It wiped out an ancient civilization from the face of the earth, ancient philosophy, politics and jurisprudence to start all over from the beginning. The only thing that it borrowed from the lost ancient world was Christianity and a few dilapidated cities that had lost all their former civilization. As a result, as happens at all early stages of development, the monopoly on intellectual education went to the priests, and education itself thus assumed a predominantly theological character. outside world. The need for geographical maps turned out to be negligible: neither the merchant nor the feudal lord needed them. For a long time, the so-called “monastic maps”, which were created under the vaults of monasteries, became the dominant type of cartographic works. Their performers used some ancient sources, distorted and mixed with subsequent fictions; they usually based their idea of ​​the universe on one of the biblical verses, which allowed them to think of the Earth as a flat disk.

Single monastery maps in the early Middle Ages later became a frequent occurrence. Now more than 1,100 medieval maps of the world are known, among which the most common maps depict three continents (Europe, Asia and Africa) washed by the ocean, approximately within the ecumene of the ancient Greeks. These cards illustrated theological writings, and sometimes had only a decorative value. They were picture drawings, in the most rough form conveying the world known in the Middle Ages.

Over time, the size of the monastery maps increased. For example, a map of the 13th century. in the Benedictine monastery in Ebstorf (Lower Saxony) had a diameter of 3.5 m. The number of details grew, partly due to the Crusades, which enriched the geographical ideas of Europeans. But there was no progress in thought. Deprived of a scientific basis, monastic maps testified to the decline of cartography in Europe during the period of domination of church-feudal culture there.

The rise of cartography in Europe is associated with a progressive upheaval, which is called the Renaissance. From the time of the Crusades (XI-XIII centuries), the development of commodity-money relations and trade begins, the population of cities grows, a new urban culture. Earlier than other Western European countries, this process manifested itself in Italy. Venice and Genoa served as trade intermediaries between East and West. The development of trade contributed to the rise of navigation. There were ships designed for sailing on the high seas. Manuals were needed that could help sailors navigate near the coast and on the high seas. The compass and navigation charts - portolans (XIV-XVI centuries) entered the marine use. Caused by the new needs of life, the portolans resolutely rejected the reactionary traditions of monastic cartography, its mythical, fabulous features. Constantly tested in nature, they possessed an accuracy previously unknown.

The birthplace of the first portolans were the cities of Italy, where the profession of mapmakers was born. The oldest surviving portolan, the so-called Pisa map, presumably dates back to 1290. A little later, in the first half of the 14th century, Catalan cartographers from the island of Mallorca begin to compete with the Italians in the manufacture of portolans.

Initially, portolans depicted only the Mediterranean and Black Sea, whose general configuration is quite plausible already on the earliest samples. The coastline was shown in detail, with great care and, as a rule, with a deliberate exaggeration of objects of interest to the sailor. Small islands, bays, coastal cliffs, unimportant from the point of view of a geographer, but significant in coastal navigation, were intensified during drafting. In contrast to the significant pressure along the coasts (especially with regard to names), the interior of the land (rivers, cities, mountains) was usually not depicted. Typical portolans did not take into account the sphericity of the Earth and, therefore, were not based on a map projection. Instead of meridians and parallels, the portolan was covered with a "web" of compass lines. Compass grids, indicating the position of the cardinal points and intermediate points, were drawn at a number of points and served to plot the ship's course on the compass.

Another distinguishing feature of portolans was drawings of linear scales, not known on earlier maps. Portolans were made on parchment (made from the skin of animals), which ensured their durability. The compass, portolans and other inventions of the era prepared the technical basis for the great geographical discoveries. However, when navigation spread beyond the Old World, portolans ceased to satisfy the needs of sailors, since without projection they were unsuitable for depicting vast spaces and for determining the location of a ship by geographical coordinates.

According to Engels, the Renaissance resurrected Greek antiquity. The discovery of ancient culture and admiration for it left a deep mark on the history of cartography. At the beginning of the XV century. Ptolemy's Geography, previously unknown in Europe, was translated into Latin in Italy. This work struck scientists with the absence of religious principles, an abundance of material, mathematical principles for constructing maps, and therefore for a long time won the glory of unshakable authority.

The largest cultural event of the 15th century had a huge impact on the development of cartography. - the invention of printing, after which engraving and printing cards entered the practice. Until that time, maps were reproduced by copying by hand. The high cost of handwritten maps limited their distribution, and copying introduced errors and degraded quality. Engraving - printing prints from a wooden or copper plate, on which a mirror image of a card was cut out according to the author's handwritten original - made it possible to obtain hundreds and even thousands of completely identical copies, which greatly reduced the cost of the cards. Engraving on copper, more difficult to perform, gave a better, finer and clearer design. With the appearance of mass demand for cards, they could become the subject of relatively wide distribution.

The earliest map printed in Europe is considered to be the map of the world in the Etymology (a kind of encyclopedia of the early Middle Ages) by Isidore of Seville (circa 560-636), engraved on wood in Augsburg in 1472. The first edition of Ptolemy's Geography, accompanied by maps, engraved on copper, appeared in 1477 in Bologna. In 1478 another edition appeared in Rome, with maps of higher quality, also engraved on copper; in 1482 "Geography" was printed in Ulm and Florence. In total in the XV century. seven editions of Geography were published, and by the end of the 16th century. there were 39 of them. The systematic selection of maps, degree frame, orientation to the north, image methods and other features make it possible to see in the Ptolemaic collection a prototype of modern geographical atlases. Among the non-European cartographic images of this time, we note the schematic pictured "maps" (pictograms), common in pre-Columbian times among the Indians of Mexico, which reliably conveyed the relative position of villages and other remarkable objects. The conqueror of Mexico, Cortes, used such maps when traveling through the Yucatan (Bagrov Leo. History of Russian cartography. - M., Tsentrpoligraf, 2005. - 524 p.).

4 The heyday of Western European cartography in the 16th and 17th centuries.

In the 16th century, in the era of the disintegration of feudal relations and the emergence of capitalism in the depths of feudal society, conditions were created that contributed to the flourishing of cartographic science and production in Western Europe.

Small feudal estates were replaced by large absolutist-feudal monarchies. Reliable maps became essential for the administration of vast areas. Many countries have begun publishing regional maps. Since that time, systematic cartographic land surveys have begun. One of the earliest works of this kind was the 1:45,000 scale survey and map of Bavaria by Philip Apian in 1554-1561. and then published in 1568 as a woodcut on a scale of 1: 144,000 by 24. A new profession of renters appeared. A compass, a measuring cord and a measuring wheel were used as measuring instruments, although the scale and instruments that can be considered as prototypes of theodolite were already known in the first half of the 16th century. When mapping large areas, the surveyors usually followed the roads, determining the directions of the path and the distances covered. The surrounding area was depicted visually. These maps signified that new period in the development of cartography, when they switched from commentaries on the works of ancient authors to direct study of the area.

Another powerful stimulus for the rise of cartography was the great geographical discoveries of the 15th-16th centuries, which led to the unprecedented development of navigation, colonization, and trade. Navigators, colonialists, merchants have an increased need for truthful geographical maps. The map has received universal recognition and distribution. At the same time, a huge amount of material has been accumulated that has radically changed the geographical ideas about the Earth.

The geography of Ptolemy, which played an outstanding role in the scientific and mathematical substantiation of cartography, although it retained in the 16th century. popularity, could not meet the growing demands of practice. Firstly, she proceeded from incorrect ideas about the relationship between the spaces occupied by land and ocean, and secondly, her maps were schematic even in relation to the countries known to Ptolemy.

For mapping the newly discovered lands, the Spanish "Chamber for Trade with India", the Dutch and English "East India Companies" - the largest enterprises for the exploitation of the colonies - were of great importance. They had special cartographic institutions where geographical and cartographic materials were collected and processed and maps were prepared to supply their own ships. Under conditions of colonial rivalry, competition blocked the free flow of knowledge.

At the same time, the widespread demand for geographical maps has led to the emergence of a large number of private cartographic enterprises based on commercial interest. Until the 18th century in Western Europe, the attention of the state apparatus to cartographic work was relatively small, and the support provided to these works was of an episodic nature. Under these conditions, the development of cartography in the XVI and XVII centuries. owed much to private initiative.

This development in different countries had its own characteristics, reflected in the content and appearance of geographical maps. Therefore, cartographic schools are quite distinguishable: Italian, Portuguese, Flemish, French, etc. The great artists and enlighteners of the era - Leonardo da Vinci, Albrecht Dürer, Jan Comenius and others - also turned to cartography in their works.

Initially, cartography flourished in Italy's wealthy trading cities, especially Venice, Genoa, and Florence, as well as in Germany. The heyday of Italian art in the Renaissance left its mark on geographical maps, remarkable for the magnificence of the frames, the elegance and clarity of the inscriptions, the artistic execution of the drawings of caravels, sea deities, everyday scenes, etc. Maps entered the themes of decorative art. Performed in a variety of manners in the form of frescoes, wall carpets, jewelry, etc., they adorned the palaces of sovereigns and nobility. An excellent example is the map room in the Palazzo Vecchio in Florence, where a kind of “Atlas of the World” is reproduced on the doors of large cabinets from 53 very detailed maps that were created over 26 years from 1563 to 1589. Fresco maps of the same period have survived to this day. in the Belvedere of the Papal Palace in the Vatican, in the Uffizi galleries - the former offices of the Duchy of Tuscany in Florence, in the Caprarola Palace near Rome. The sources for them were maps from the Geography of Ptolemy, and later maps of Ortelius and others.

After the welfare of Italy was undermined by the movement of trade routes from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic and as a result of foreign invasions, the center of Western European cartographic activity shifted in the second half of the 16th century. to the Netherlands, the richest and most economically advanced country in Europe at that time. Antwerp, the new center of world trade, also assumed the position of the center of cartographic activity. The pinnacle of the Flemish school was reached in the writings of Ortelius and Mercator.

Abraham Ortelius (1527-1598) was an engraver, illuminator, merchant and map publisher. He is famous for his large collection of 70 maps on 53 sheets, published in 1570 under the title "Theatrum orbis terrarum" - "A spectacle (or review) of the globe of the earth", for which, along with his own maps, were attracted and used with great skill maps of many, in particular Italian, authors. The logical sequence of maps of the world, Europe, Asia, Africa and America, mentioning the names of 87 cartographers - authors of maps, accompanying each map with a geographical description, including historical maps, and finally, corrections to maps and expansion of the atlas in each new edition ensured the work of Ortelius unprecedented success. In the period up to 1612, it appeared in 33 editions and a number of additional editions in 7 languages.

After moving in 1552 to Duisburg from Louvain, where Mercator was subjected to religious persecution, his activities were accompanied by outstanding achievements. Mercator's fame is due to three famous works - a map of Europe in 1554, a large World Map "for navigators" in 1569 and the capital atlas of 1595. On the World Map, Mercator for the first time used a conformal cylindrical projection, explained its meaning, convenience and methods of application for navigation, setting thereby starting the development scientific methods use of cards. Mercator's Atlas - the result of genuine scientific creativity - presented a phenomenon of a new order in terms of relative accuracy and richness of content, internal unity, understanding of the mathematical principles of building maps, the merits and imperfections of various projections. The atlases of Ortelius and Mercator were the most important, but by no means the only collections of maps, even within the Netherlands. In the 70s, a portable road atlas (20x15 cm) appeared in Antwerp, showing the road network of Europe, primarily trade routes. Remarkably "The Mirror of Navigation" - a two-volume collection of nautical charts by Wagener (1584-1585). This pioneer among special purpose atlases included in the first edition a general map of Western Europe (in an equidistant cylindrical projection) and 43 private maps with compass roses and scales (1: 370,000), showing depth marks on the water (The earliest known map with depth marks date back to 1570), sandbars, etc.). There are 18 editions of the atlas in Dutch, Latin, French, German and English. The century, when it became necessary to map the entire planet (and not an eighth of it, like Ptolemy), turned out to be very fruitful in the development of new projections. By the end of the century, the number of known projections reached twenty.

In identifying the properties, advantages and disadvantages of projections, a great merit belongs to Mercator. He used projections, in accordance with the shape and position of the depicted territories and the purpose of the map. For maps of the world, projections of the hemispheres, "heart-shaped", cylindrical and pseudo-cylindrical, began to be used. Regional maps were often built in a trapezoidal pseudocylindrical projection (Donis) with rectilinear meridians preserving lengths along the middle meridian and two parallels; it came into use already in early editions of Ptolemy's Geography.

In the first half and middle of the XVI century. cards were made by craftsmen united in guild class organizations. Such an organization of work, with the laboriousness of engraving and illumination, was suitable for issuing individual maps in small print runs, but the creation of multi-sheet maps and especially geographical atlases, which required enormous labor, could not be achieved by the efforts of two or three workers. It was necessary to cooperate efforts, which was initially achieved by expanding the guild workshop by increasing the number of workers, but still without division of labor. The cartographic institution Blau occupied in the middle of the 17th century. a large building that housed the engraving department, a card printing shop with six machines, a printing shop with nine printing presses, a type foundry, a proofreading department and a number of other office premises. According to a contemporary, the best engravers, word cutters, printers and map illuminators worked there. Around 1660 there were 75 of them. It was already capitalist production.

For its further development, cartography needed a scientific justification, a strict critical comparison and evaluation of sources. In the 17th century these requirements began to appear in regional works, for example, in the maps of the French geographer Sanson (1600-1667), but their systematic implementation already refers to the cartography of modern times (Salishchev K.A. Cartology / K.A. Salishchev. - M .: Izd- in Moscow University, 2000. 437 p.).

CHAPTER 3. CARTOGRAPHY OF THE NEW TIME

1 Cartography under Peter 1

Russian cartography under Peter I takes the path of scientific development. The main achievements of cartography under Peter I were: training for cartographic surveys and mapping; conducting systematic state surveys to create a general map of Russia, organizing expeditions for mapping the seas; publication of maps.

A great contribution to the development of cartography in Russia at the beginning of the 18th century. introduced by the outstanding cartographer of that time, Ober-Secretary of the Senate I.K. Kirilov - the head of all work on mapping the country at that time. He advocated the development of Russian cartography independent of foreign cartography, for displaying his country on maps in its entirety, he planned to create a large Atlas of the All-Russian Empire in three volumes of 120 sheets each, but due to his early death he managed to print and prepare for printing only 37 cards.

After the death of I.K. Kirilov, cartographic work in the country was transferred to the Geographical Department of the Academy of Sciences, which prepared and published in 1745 the first complete Atlas of the Russian. The Department has published more than 250 maps reflecting the results of government surveys and various surveys. vany. Great influence on the development of cartography in the XVIII century. rendered by the great Russian scientist M.V. Lomonosov, who headed the Geographic Department since 1757. He did a lot to prepare maps graph-geodetic frames, to improve the accuracy of surveys and maps graphic works, updating and improving the compilation of maps.

At the end of the XVIII century. based on the materials of the general survey, atlases of individual provinces and a consolidated atlas of 42 provinces with a general map of Russia were compiled and published, and at the beginning of the 19th century. based on the same materials, a multi-sheet map of Russia was compiled on a scale of 1: 840,000. An outstanding cartographic work of the middle of the 19th century. a three-verst map of European Russia (1:126,000) appeared, on which the relief is depicted by the method of steepness strokes. From the second half of the XIX century. on large-scale topographic maps of Russia, horizontal lines began to be used instead of strokes to display the relief.

In the 19th century in Russia, as well as in the countries of foreign Europe, thematic mapping began to develop more and more widely. Thematic maps were created for various branches of knowledge. The works of V.V. Dokuchaev on soil mapping, A.A. Tillo on compiling hypsometric maps of European Russia, P.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky on mapping the economy and population. Mapping of the internal parts of the country with the aim of compiling a general map of Russia was undertaken in the last decade of the life of Peter I. The scope of work was unusual for its time. Separate surveyors were sent to work starting from 1715. The systematic implementation of state surveying was announced in 1720 by a special decree of the Senate - the highest governing body of the country. In 1721, there were 34 surveyors on the surveys, and in 1732, there were already 111 of them “in the dispatch” for state surveys and other works. Surveyors were also part of many expeditions organized in the post-Petrine era to explore Siberia, Kamchatka, Kazakhstan, the Caspian steppes and Central Asia, to explore natural resources, find waterways, etc.

(Brown L.A. History of geographical maps. - M., Tsentrpoligraf, 2006.- 480 p.).

3.2 Western European cartography in the second half of the 17th and first half of the 18th century

The development of capitalist relations in the countries of Western Europe contributed to the further rise of cartography. large industry created a world market prepared by the discovery of America. The world market caused the vigorous development of trade, navigation and means of communication. It became necessary to see the whole world, to have its truthful, scientifically substantiated map. The handicraft way of making maps and atlases, characteristic of the Dutch cartographic manufactories of the 17th century, could not lead to satisfactory results. The task was not limited to reflecting new discoveries on maps. There was a need for new types of maps, new projections, systematic surveys large territories. The successful solution of these problems required a scientific approach, the introduction of new methods, critical study and processing of sources.

In the 17th century England and France became the largest and most developed states of Western Europe. By the end of the century, absolutist France had reached the height of its power. The kingship sought to take advantage of the rise of culture and science. The most prominent French cartographers Guillaume Delisle (1675-1726) and d "Anville (1697-1782), "geographers of the king", are elected members of the Academy of Sciences. In their writings, they critically analyze the work of their predecessors, widely draw on new sources, subject them to research and verification , re-create maps that significantly improve the image of many regions of the Earth. For example, Delisle first showed the Mediterranean Sea in its correct proportions, eliminating the error in longitude that has been preserved on maps since the time of Ptolemy. Of the 210 maps belonging to d "Anville, we note the maps of China, signifying great progress in the ideas of Europeans about this great country. A particularly important contribution to science was made by the astronomical and geodetic works of French scientists to determine the shape and size of the Earth, which are commonly called degree measurements (initially, their goal was to determine the length of one degree of the meridian arc).

A new method for determining the length of the earth's meridian through triangulation was used by the Dutchman Snellius as early as 1615. The weak point of the previous definitions is the low accuracy of directly measuring the length of the meridian arc (Eratosthenes, for example, determined the length of the arc between Siena and Alexandria by the time and speed of caravans) - was excluded by replacing linear measurements with angular ones. However, the accuracy of the results obtained by Snell, for a number of reasons, in particular because of the imperfection of the goniometric tool, was not great.

The beginning of French degree measurements was laid by Picard in 1669-1670. Thanks to the use of an instrument with a pipe equipped with a grid of threads, Picard obtained for the ball the length of a one-degree arc equal to 111212 m, which differs from the one accepted today (111221 m) by only 9 m A little later, Newton put forward a hypothesis according to which the Earth is not a ball, but an ellipsoid of revolution, somewhat compressed in the direction of its poles. To clarify the truth, the Paris Academy of Sciences organized and performed a number of degree measurements, in particular in Peru and Lapland, which confirmed the compression and refined the size of the Earth.

Following these degree measurements, under the direction of the director of the Paris Observatory, Caesar Cassini, a great work was begun on the "geometric inventory" of France, which consisted in the distribution of triangulation chains throughout the country (1744). Large settlements were tied to this network, which consisted of more than 2000 triangles, for which geographical coordinates were then calculated.

In England, the bourgeois revolution of the middle of the XVII century. removed obstacles to the development of capitalist relations. With the rapid growth of maritime and colonial power, the improvement of navigation and cartography has become of paramount importance. It contributed to the safety of navigation. In order to facilitate the determination of longitudes at sea, the Greenwich Observatory was established (1675). Magnetic declinations, tides, winds, etc. were studied. These studies gave the English astronomer Edmond Halley (Halley) material for compiling physical and geographical maps: winds (1688) and magnetic declinations (1701). Thus, Halley laid the foundation for thematic maps of nature and their application for studying the patterns of spatial distribution of natural phenomena (Berlyant A.M. Cartography. - M .: Aspect Press, 2001. 336 p.).

3 Russian cartography of the 19th century

At the turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries. Russian cartography is going through an important period of its development. In 1797, the so-called Map Depot was created, which in 1812 was renamed the Military Topographic Depot. This marked the beginning of the organization of the military topographic service in Russia. In 1800, the Geographical Department of the Academy of Sciences was attached to the Depot of Maps, which by that time had practically moved away from the development of scientific and applied issues of geography and had lost interest in the activities of the Geographical Department. Finally, in 1822, the Corps of Military Topographers was established. His tasks included both the implementation of cartographic and geodetic works of national importance in order to meet civilian needs, and the provision of maps to the Russian army.

Conducted in the late XVIII - early XIX century. organizational measures in the field of cartography and geography had a positive impact on their development. The wars that took place at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th century also had a significant impact on the development of cartography: the volume of surveying field work increased, attention was paid to providing maps to the western and southern border regions of the country, the design of maps and their accuracy improved.

Not a single element of nature has undergone such radical changes in the image on the maps as the relief. Transferred from the 18th century perspective or pictorial method in the 19th century. gradually loses its meaning. It is replaced by the method of depicting the relief with strokes, which in the 19th century. becomes the main one in Russian cartography and reaches its zenith in the middle of the century. To replace strokes - this very thin and expensive method of depicting relief - in the second half of the 19th century. comes the method of washing and shading.

However, the Russian economy, especially after the abolition of serfdom in 1861, is increasingly developing. The development of new territories, road construction, hydrological surveys and mining also need maps that would make it possible to quickly determine the height of a place, the steepness of slopes, build various terrain profiles, etc. And such in the second half of the 19th century. become maps with the image of the relief in the way of contour lines. His introduction into the practice of large-scale maps was facilitated by the invention of a range finder and a vertical circle, which, during field work, made it possible to quickly and relatively accurately measure the heights of points on the earth's surface.

But systematic topographic surveys depicting the terrain with contour lines were developed in Russia only in the 70s of the 19th century. Since they were carried out on a fairly large scale - 1-2 versts per inch, the results of such surveys could not quickly affect the content of the country's general maps. Therefore, contour surveys of the relief, as well as the triangulations and levelings carried out at that time, were rather accumulators of information about the Earth's surface,

Along with topographic work, materials were collected for statistical descriptions necessary for the military-geographical characteristics of the area. Obtaining these materials, of course, was possible only on the condition of a thorough study of the territory in geographical terms. This is how the accumulation of all kinds of data went on, which eventually became interesting as sources for compiling thematic maps of nature.

A large role in creating the prerequisites for the development of nature maps belongs to the Russian Geographical Society. It was founded in 1845 under the leadership of the Academy of Sciences and the Navy Department. This society had the goal of geographically studying the territory and obtaining systematic information about various natural conditions: relief, waters, soils, vegetation, etc. Its expeditions were usually accompanied by cartographic and survey work, on the basis of which various maps were compiled. Members of the expeditions conducted by the Geographical Society were also engaged in astronomical determinations of latitudes and longitudes of points, which made a great contribution to the topographic and geodetic study of the country. The largest expeditions of the society were expeditions to the Northern Urals (1847-1850), to Eastern Siberia (1855), to the Tien Shan (1856-1857), to Central Asia (1870-1885), etc. Great work was carried out by the Geographical Society in connection with the development of the General Map of European Russia on a scale of 40 versts per inch on 12 sheets. It was compiled on the basis of a generalization of all previously performed topographic and geodetic works, taking into account the results of numerous geographical expeditions and surveys. The map was published in 1863 and then reprinted many times. Thus, one more step forward was taken in improving the geographical content of general general geographic maps, which are so necessary for compiling various maps of nature (#"justify"> CHAPTER 4. CARTOGRAPHY OF THE MODERN TIME

1 The birth of Soviet cartography

The origin and development of Soviet cartography In 1919, the Higher Geodetic Administration was formed, which was later transformed into the Main Directorate of Geodesy and Cartography (GUGK) under the Council of Ministers of the USSR, which headed all geodetic, topographic and cartographic work in the country.

The priority measures were: the transition to the metric system of measures, the development of the layout and nomenclature of maps and a new scale series, the adoption of a single projection for all topographic maps, the introduction of a system of flat rectangular coordinates and a unit ny conventional signs. Since 1930, aerial photography has been used to create topographic maps, and somewhat later, methods for creating maps in office conditions using various stereophotogrammetric devices were introduced.

In the postwar period, extensive work was carried out to find cartographic projections (F.N. Krassovsky, V.V. Kavraysky, M.D. Solovyov), work was completed on the calculation of the earth's ellipsoid, named after the leader of the work Krasovsky's ellipsoid (1940), a number of major geographical atlases of the USSR and the world were created, including the Great Soviet Atlas of the World. In 1928, the Central Research Institute of Geodesy, Aerial Photography and Cartography was opened. In accordance with a special government decree, since 1938, school atlases and wall maps on geography and history began to be published (Berlyant A.M. Cartography. - M .: Aspect Press, 2001. 336 p.).

4.2 Ways of further progress of cartography in Russia and the world

The second half of the 20th and the beginning of the 21st century is marked by the transformation of cartography into one of the fundamental sciences of the Earth and planets and related socio-economic and environmental branches of knowledge. At the same time, it is becoming a high-tech industry based on the most modern digital technologies and telecommunications.

Another feature of the development of cartography throughout the world is its close convergence with related sciences such as geoinformatics and remote sensing. In many countries of the world, public services include geoinformatics, geoinformation mapping, and aerospace methods in their interests.

In the new Russian Federation, there were positive changes in the development of cartography. First of all, the task was set to transfer the entire cartographic production to digital technologies. First, digital maps were created at scales of 1:1,000,000 and 1:200,000 for the entire country, and then work began on digital topographic mapping at other scales.

important event in the development of cartography in the 20th century was the establishment of the International Cartographic Association (ICA), the first configuration of which took place in Paris in 1961.

Since then, the international forum has been meeting every two years to discuss scientific - practical problems, organization of cartographic and technical exhibitions. Once every four years, the General Assemblies of the ICA are convened, where Commissions and Working Groups on problems are formed. In the 60s. In the 20th century, the activities of the ICA contributed to a stormy surge in the theory of cartography, the development of thematic and atlas mapping, at the turn of the century, the problems of introducing GIS, creating databases, telecommunication and virtual mapping, standardization, planetary cartography, the history of cartography, etc., came to the fore. Domestic cartography enjoys prestige in the world community, the International Associations of the conference were held twice in Moscow (in 1976 and 2007), where Russian maps and atlases were repeatedly awarded scientific awards (#"justify"> CONCLUSION

The history of the geographical map, cartography is inextricably linked with the history of human society. Arising at the dawn of human civilization, long before the emergence of writing, cartographic images first served to convey messages about places of food extraction and hunting, then gradually they acquired more and more importance for conveying other information about the space surrounding a person, finally turning into a universal means. transmission of virtually any spatial information.

The gradual expansion of the use of the map in various fields of human activity determined the development and improvement of the conventional signs of the map and its design. The oldest surviving cartographic images include, for example, a cartographic image on a silver vase from Maykop (about 3000 BC), cartographic images on clay tablets from Mesopotamia (about 2300 BC), numerous petroglyphic maps of Valcamonica in Italy (1900-1200 BC), the Egyptian map of gold mines (1400 BC), etc. From Babylon, through the Greeks, the Western world inherited a sexagesimal number system based on the number 60 , in which geographic coordinates are expressed today.

Starting from the VI century. BC e., the main contribution to the technology of creating maps in the ancient world was made by the Greeks, Romans and Chinese. Greek contributions to cartography included the use of geometry to create maps, the development of map projections, and the measurement of the earth. In the Roman Empire, cartography was placed at the service of practice. For military, commercial and administrative needs, road maps were created. Regardless of European traditions, cartography developed in China. The maps are comparable to topographic maps in terms of image quality and detail. In terms of accuracy, they significantly exceeded even later European maps.

After the collapse in the IV century. During the Roman Empire, the scientific and cartographic achievements of Ancient Greece and Rome were forgotten in Europe for several centuries.

From the 15th century The development of cartography went at a rapid pace, due to three main reasons - the Turkish occupation of Constantinople, the invention of printing in Europe and the beginning of the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries.

Globe - a three-dimensional model of the Earth was created around 150 BC. e. Crates of Mallus. Unlike maps, there are no distortions or gaps on the globe, so the globe is convenient for getting a general idea of ​​the location of the continents and oceans.

Currently, aerial and space photography and computer technologies are used to create maps, and electronic models of globes have significantly expanded their properties, removed many restrictions associated with their manufacture and use, and expanded their scope.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Bagrov Leo. The history of the development of cartography. - M.: Tsentrpoligraf, 2004. - 320 p.

Bagrov Leo. History of Russian cartography. - M.: Tsentrpoligraf, 2005. - 524 p.

Shibanov F.A. Essays on the history of Russian cartography. - Publishing house of the Leningrad University, 1971. - S. 205 - 216.

Brown L.A. History of geographical maps. - M.: Tsentrpoligraf, 2006.- 480 p.

Salishchev K.A. Fundamentals of cartography. Part of the historical and cartographic materials. - M .: "Nedra" 1948.-152 p.

Berlyant A.M. Cartography. - M.: Aspect Press, 2001. 336 p.

http://kartograff.spb.ru/

http://www.webgeo.ru/index.php?id=25&r=57

http://albatros-vanino.ucoz.ru/publ/copyright/istorija_kartografii/2-1-0-11

http://geoman.ru/books/item/f00/s00/z0000060/st105.shtml

http://geoman.ru/books/item/f00/s00/z0000060/st114.shtml

http://dimma43.narod.ru/simple76.html

Tutoring

Need help learning a topic?

Our experts will advise or provide tutoring services on topics of interest to you.
Submit an application indicating the topic right now to find out about the possibility of obtaining a consultation.

Subject of cartography. Brief review of the development of cartography.

1.1. The subject of cartography and its relationship with other sciences

In accordance with the state standard, under cartography understand the field of science, technology and production, covering the study, creation and use of cartographic works.

Cartography is also defined as the science of displaying and studying the phenomena of nature and society, through cartographic images, as spatial figurative-sign models.

The first definition of cartography mainly characterizes the structure of cartography as a science and a branch of practical activity; the second - focuses on the wide use of maps and cartographic techniques in the cycles of physical-geographical, socio-economic sciences.

Cartography is subdivided into a number of disciplines. The main ones are: cartography, mathematical cartography, designing and compiling maps, preparing maps for publication and publishing maps, as well as organizing and managing cartographic production.

Cartology studies the general properties of geographical maps, types and methods of use. A special section of cartography forms story cartography, which studies the patterns of development of cartography as a science and a branch of practical activity. big practical value has a systematization of knowledge about cartographic sources.

Mathematical cartography is the study of how to build the mathematical basis of maps. Its main subject of research is the theory of cartographic projections. The survey of map projections is carried out for the purpose of mapping.

Design and mapping studies the modeling of cartographic works, the methods and processes for their compilation and editing.

Development of the theory and practice of cartographic generalization one of the main objectives of this discipline.

Map preparation for publication is aimed at studying the methods of graphic and colorful design of maps in order to give clarity to the cartographic image and its technological suitability for reproduction. One of the main tasks of this discipline is the development of the theory of construction of sign systems and methods of artistic design of maps (cartographic design).

Card publishing is a discipline that studies the methods and means of making circulations of cards, is one of the sections of general printing.

Organization and the economy of cartographic production was formed in our country in the middle of the last century as a result of the development of a network of cartographic enterprises. The tasks of this discipline include the study and development of methods for the operational management of the production and economic activities of enterprises.

The structure of cartography is constantly evolving, bringing together or separating individual disciplines. For example, the introduction of computer technologies into cartographic production has brought together the processes of designing, compiling and preparing maps for publication.

Cartography is in close connection and interaction with geodesy, photogrammetry, as well as mathematics, geography and art.

Geodesy provides cartography with the initial data for calculating map projections and constructing a cartographic image. Cartography, in turn, taking into account the scale of mapping, affects the accuracy of the geodetic base.

Photogrammetry provides aerial and cosmophotomaterials for compiling (updating) maps. Photogrammetry uses methods for constructing and transforming cartographic projections, methods for cartographic images, methods for compiling and editing maps.

Cartography has long been associated with mathematics. Initially, mathematical methods were used in the development of map projections. Nowadays, all the disciplines that make up cartography use mathematical methods. Especially this connection has intensified with the use of electronic technology.

At the present stage of the development of cartography, strong links have been established between cartography and information theory. Information theory considers a map as a special form of information storage and transmission. The organization of the service of cartographic information applies the development of information theory.

The closest connection between cartography and geography is social. Geography provides cartographers with knowledge about the most important features of natural conditions and the socio-economic life of society. Geographers widely use the cartographic method in their research.

Cartography has long used the techniques of fine art in the construction of a cartographic image. Since the information transmitted on the map must not only be accurate and reliable, but also be aesthetically expressive, understood by the consumer.

1.2. Brief overview of the development of cartography

The development of cartography is determined by the needs of society. Newly emerging needs determine the emergence of new cartographic works. With the accumulation of experience in creating maps and the use of the achievements of other sciences, the scientific foundations of cartography were created.

Cartographic images - drawings on tiles about the inhabited area - appeared in primitive society, before the birth of writing. The earliest of those that have come down to us belong to the peoples of the Ancient East (Egypt, Babylonia, China) and date back to 4000 - 3000 BC.

1.2.1. Cartography of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome

The first maps in the modern sense appeared in Ancient Greece. The Greeks established the sphericity of the Earth, introduced the scientific concepts of meridians and parallels, and developed for the first time cartographic projections. The first projections were based on geometric methods of construction and were developed and applied in the construction of sundials and star charts. The first maps of the starry sky in the central (gnomonic) projection were developed by a Greek astronomer Thales of Miletus (6th century BC).

The scientific foundations of cartography were laid by the Alexandrian astronomer Hipparchus(2nd century BC). He introduced a coordinate system and proposed to build maps, determining the position of points on the earth's surface in latitude and longitude. Hipparchus developed stereographic and equidistant conic projections.

The first maps of the Earth, taken as a ball, were Marin Tire(about 100 BC) a degree grid was plotted on the map. Built the first globe Krates from Malos (2nd century AD).

The ancient period of the development of cartography ended in the era of the Roman Empire with the creation of works Claudius Ptolemy(90 - 168 AD), a Greek scholar who lived in Alexandria. Ptolemy's work "Guide to Geography" included a description of the then known projections, 27 maps of the world, 26 maps of the regions of the Earth (in a conic, in a stereographic projection), a list of settlements, mountains, rivers, the position of which was determined by geographical coordinates (along meridians and parallels).

Ptolemy's work was fundamental to cartography for the next millennium. During the Renaissance, when Europe mastered the achievements of the culture of Ancient Greece, Ptolemy's work was reprinted many times.

The development of cartography in ancient Rome was influenced by military affairs and the requests of the administration, which controlled a vast territory. To establish links with outlying provinces, paved roads began to be built. By decision of the Senate, they were measured and each mile marked stone pillar indicating the distances.

Road construction materials formed the basis of the first road maps. These Roman road maps (4th century) entered the history of cartography under the name of the Peutinger tables (after the name of the historian, their first owner). Roman road maps were found in 1507.

1.2.2. Cartography in the Middle Ages (5th century - mid-17th century)

In the early Middle Ages, due to feudal fragmentation, the death of the Roman Empire (5th c.) western- European cartography fell into decay. Against this background, the progress of geographical knowledge in China, Armenia and the countries of the Arab world stands out. In Armenia, the work of Ptolemy became known at the end of the 14th century. Geographical knowledge in the countries of the Arab world found practical application for the collection of taxes and taxes. In turn, the development of trade contributed to the accumulation and dissemination of geographical knowledge. Scientists from the countries of the Arab world created an extensive geographical literature, rich in factual material, but the maps they created had a peculiar look. The outlines of geographical objects took the form of circles, arcs and straight lines on these maps.

China during the Middle Ages was an independent center of geographical knowledge. For example, the use of the compass, the invention of paper in the 2nd century, and wood engraving at the end of the 6th century speak of the high culture of China for its time. According to literary sources, it is known that the map of all China was compiled by Pei Xu (223-227), summarizing local sources.

The surviving text for the map contains instructions on using a grid of squares as a basis for orienting to the cardinal points and placing objects on the map. The Chinese in the 8th century Eastern, central, and southern Asia, as well as the northeastern coast of Africa and Arabia, were known from their own voyages in the first half of the 15th century.

In Europe in the early Middle Ages, only those elements of knowledge were recognized that could serve the interests of the church. Due to the decline of trade, the need for maps was negligible. Geographical maps for a long time acquired the form of "monastic maps". A description of the typical features of monastic maps is given by K.A. Salishchev: “the ocean washing the Earth, the central position of Ye Rusalim, in the east (at the top of the map) paradise with its original inhabitants, primitive outlines of land and seas, perspective signs of settlements and mountains, etc. .P.".

The rise of cartography in Europe is associated with the Renaissance, first in Italy (14th - 15th century), then in other European countries (15th - 16th century). The development of trade caused the rise of navigation. In ship navigation, the compass and navigational charts - portolans (beginning of the 14th century) began to be used. Initially, portolans depicted the Mediterranean and Black Seas. They depicted the coastline in detail, with exaggeration of objects important for navigation. Instead of meridians and parallels, the portolans were covered with a compass grid, which made it possible to determine the cardinal points.

For the first time, a linear scale is indicated on portolans (the numerical scale on maps appeared later, in the 18th - 19th centuries). Portolans were drawn on parchment (made from animal skin), which ensured their durability.

The great geographical discoveries achieved as a result of sea expeditions (15th - 17th centuries) and the astronomical determinations made, which made it possible to clarify the size of the Earth, influenced the development of cartography, increasing the accuracy of maps. The need for cards has increased exponentially. Sailors, many of whom, including Columbus, were cartographers, felt a special need for them. Already in the 15th century The Venetian Fra Mauro made a map of the world, which reflected the results of the expeditions of that time. Italian art during the Renaissance influenced the design of frames, card fonts, artistic performance cartouches. With the move to the 16th century. trade routes from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic became the center of cartographic activity in the Netherlands. In the Netherlands, Abraham Ortelius created the first geographical atlas. The novelty of geographical knowledge, reported by the collection of maps of Ortelius (1570), finally excluded Ptolemy's maps from the modern maps of that time, attributing them to the monuments of antiquity.

But of the achievements of this period, the most notable are the works of the Dutchman Gerard Mercator (1512-1594). His fundamental atlas of the world summarized all available information about the study of the Earth. Mercator first introduced the concept of "atlas" into scientific use, the principles of constructing the mathematical basis of atlas maps.

Another outstanding work of Mercator is the map of the world. The map depicted the entire surface of the Earth (and not an eighth of it, as in Ptolemy). Mercator developed a conformal cylindrical projection for the map, which is still used in nautical charts.

The development of navigation, trade and the colonization of new lands increased the need for maps. Satisfaction of this demand became possible with the invention of printing and engraving. Until the middle of the 15th century. cards were multiplied by redrawing by hand, at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century. engraving (clean engraving and etching) began to be used to reproduce maps.

The collection and systematization of extensive descriptions and maps of various lands served as the source material for compiling world maps. The territory of Russia on these maps was depicted according to the descriptions of travelers who were in Russia and Russian materials that have not come down to us. Thus, the first maps of Russia created in Europe were the map of Muscovy by the Venetian cartographer Agnese (1525) and the map of the Lithuanian Anthony Vid. A. Vid, using the knowledge of the boyar N.V. Lyatsky, who fled from Moscow repressions in 1534, draws in 1540 and publishes in 1555 a drawing of Muscovy with part of Siberia. On the Mercator map of Russia, the territory of the country in the east is shown up to the river. Ob (1594).

It can be considered that the maps of Russia published in Europe constitute an independent collection. They are historical evidence of the level of geographical knowledge until the end of the 17th century. and the contribution of Russian people to the study of Eurasia.

The first surviving document of Russian cartography is the "Book of the Big Drawing". According to the surviving description, the "Big Drawing" (1550-1570) was a route map with settlements and a network of water and land routes.

In the 17th century the annexation of Siberia and its economic development were accompanied by the drawing up of drawings and descriptions of newly discovered lands. Drawings and descriptions were collected in the offices of the voivods and consolidated maps of Siberia were compiled from them. This is how the “General Drawing of Siberia” was compiled by the Tobolsk governor Peter Godunov (1667) and the “Drawing Book” - the first Russian atlas of Siberia, consisting of 23 maps. These cards were printed from wooden boards. The maps were oriented to the south, did not have a grid, but contained a lot of information about economic, ethpographic values. For world cartography, they were the only reliable sources about Siberia.

Until the end of the 17th century. Russian cartography developed in an original way. Since its inception, it has been of a state character.

Russian maps were compiled according to real drawings and descriptions compiled on the ground. Domestic cartography is not characterized by hypothetical maps of Arabic and medieval Western European cartography.

During this period, the scientific foundations of cartography were developed in mathematical geography, which included related issues of astronomy, history, and mathematical cartography.

1.2.3. Cartography in the 18th-20th centuries.

At 18 .r handicraft production of maps no longer satisfied the developing trade, navigation, military affairs, reliable maps were needed.

In 1824, the Russian Academy of Sciences was established. Cartographic work was concentrated in the Geographic Department of the Academy of Sciences, in which, until the end of the 18th century. the results of state surveys, materials of expeditions, sea voyages and other geographical studies were summarized. Ivan Kirillov published 37 maps of the Atlas of the All-Russian Empire on the basis of filming route surveys, among which the General Map (1734) is especially important, reflecting the geographical knowledge of the country. In 1745, the Atlas of the Russian was published on 20 sheets under the direction of L. Euler. M.V. Lomonosov, who headed the Geographic Department, pays special attention to the scientific organization of cartographic work, the coordinate basis of surveys and maps.

The need for large-scale maps covering large areas has increased. To this end, the dimensions and shape of the Earth are being specified, surveying methods are being improved, and new projections are being developed. Under these conditions, geodesy takes shape as an independent discipline. The triangulation method developed in geodesy made it possible to create the basis for topographic surveys and the creation of topographic maps.

Top 19 V . topography stands out from geodesy. During this period, the issues of mathematical cartography, the compilation and design of maps are reflected in works on geodesy and topography.

The development of small-scale and thematic mapping went beyond the interests of geodesy, so cartography begins to form as an independent branch of knowledge. But for a long time, mathematical cartography remained the most theoretically developed, while the compilation, design and publication of maps remained a craft.

At the same time, the growing need for maps, necessary for the development of the economy of countries and military affairs, required organizational efforts. By the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. in most European countries, state, mainly military, cartographic and geodetic services are being created with their own institutes and production enterprises.

In Russia, such a service - the Card Case - was created in 1797. In 1812, the Card Case was transformed into Military– topographic case. Since that time, cartography in Russia has been transferred to military subordination.

As in other major maritime powers of the world, a Hydrographic Service was created in Russia (1827). One of its main tasks is the creation of nautical charts.

As a result of the activities of these services, by the middle of the 19th century. major European countries surveyed and created topographic maps of their territories. (The relief was depicted with strokes). In Russia, topographic surveys based on triangulation were carried out for the western, central and southern provinces of the European part, the Caucasus and the border strip of the Asian part of the country. Three-verst (1:126000), ten-verst (1:420000) maps of European Russia were created on the basis.

In the second half of the 19th century military affairs and economic activity increased the requirements for the accuracy of maps. During this period, the relief on topographic maps begins to be depicted by horizontal lines, the scale of surveys is enlarged. Filming that meets the new requirements is carried out mainly for possible theaters of war.

During the First World War (1914-1918), the production of topographic maps increased sharply and a new survey method, aerial photography, began to be introduced. The use of lithography (printing from flat plates) instead of labor-intensive engraving made it possible to increase the circulation of topographic maps in cartographic publishing and lithography. The transition to lithography allowed for the colorful edition of maps (instead of black and white engraving).

The foundations of modern state cartography in our country were laid in 1919 by the creation of the Higher Geodetic Administration (now the Federal Service "Ros Cartography"). Since that time, the Military Topographic Service and Russian Cartography have been cooperating in our country to the present. One of the main tasks of the civil service "Roskartography" is topographic knowledge of the country's territory, surveying, updating and publishing state maps according to unified regulatory documents. In 1923, a system of metric scales was established and a unified system of graphics and sheet nomenclature associated with it was established on the basis of the International Million Map.

A single projection has been developed - the Gauss-Kruger projection, used to process geodetic measurements and create topographic maps. In the 90s of the 20th century. research in the field of mathematical cartography continues successfully and the development of other theoretical issues has been started by F.N. Krasovsky (1878-1948), V.V. Kavraisky (1884-1954), N.A. Yu.M.Shokalsky (1856-1940), A.A.Borzov (1874-1939). The development of the higher cartographic school in the USSR is also connected with their names.

An important achievement of the cartography of the Soviet period at the end of the 30s was the publication of the Great Soviet World Atlas (BSAM), which has not lost its scientific and methodological significance to this day, as well as the publication of wall school maps with a circulation of 3 million copies.

In the mid-1930s, stereophotogrammetric surveying began to change, significantly reducing field work.

During the Great Patriotic War (1941-1945), the military topographic and state cartographic and geodetic service provided the troops with modern topographic and special maps. In total, more than 930 million copies were printed. various cards. By the beginning of 1942, the creation of a topographic map at a scale of 1:100,000 for the European part of the country (up to the Volga) was completed. It was at this time that it was made state card USSR scale 1:1000000. It worked out methods of generalization and geographic editing of overview maps.

Foreign cartography in the pre-war and the period of World War II (1939-1945) worked mainly for military purposes: grids of rectangular coordinates were introduced on sheets of topographic maps, a transition was made within each country to a single projection of topographic maps. For vehicles, a topographic map at a scale of 1:200,000 was adapted, for aviation - maps at a scale of 1:500,000 - 1:1,000,000. In turn, the use of air and motor transport accelerated the production of filming. During this period, private entrepreneurial cartography was financially supported by large monopolies. During the war, topographic units were introduced into the armies, equipped with surveying map publishing equipment, which reduced the time for making maps.

The main content of the work of cartographic production in the mid-50s was: the completion of the USSR mapping program at a scale of 1:100,000, the publication and complete revision and creation of the second edition of a topographic map at a scale of 1:1,000,000 (1952-1958) and the deployment of surveys in scales 1:25000 and 1:10000.

On the basis of the achievements of the country's topographic knowledge, at the end of the 1950s, the scientific and methodological foundations of small-scale general geographic mapping were developed. In 1954, a reference Atlas of the World was created, summarizing the topographic data of the earth's surface and hypsometrically conveying the relief of the land and the bottom of the oceans.

World War II required mobilization and infiltration new technology into cartographic production not only in the USSR, but also in foreign countries. For example, the US military mapping service has become a large manufacturing facility. Its purpose was to provide maps of territories that were of interest to the armed forces. With the formation of the NATO bloc (1949) in the countries included in the bloc, measures were taken to unify the geodetic and mathematical bases, conventional signs, and the borders of topographic maps.

In 50-70s. resumed work on the creation of comprehensive atlases of individual countries and regions.

In the 1960s, comprehensive atlases of the union republics began to appear in the USSR, which are now evaluated as national atlases of the republics.

The creation of complex thematic atlases belongs to this period: the Marine Atlas in 3 volumes, the Climatological Atlas of the USSR, the Atlas of Agriculture of the USSR.

The achievements of Soviet cartography are recognized by the cartographic community of the world, and the Faculty of Geography of Moscow State University becomes the scientific and cartographic center of the International Geographical Union.

A major achievement of domestic cartography of this period is the completion of work on the creation of a topographic map of the USSR at a scale of 1:25,000. Created and periodically updated state topographic maps serve as the basis for the design of engineering structures, when creating a variety of cartographic products for the general population. Private entrepreneurial cartography mainly produces mass products: educational, road, tourist maps and city plans that do not require large investments.

At the end of the last century, the theory and practice of using geospatial data, GIS, GIS technologies.

The development of new information technologies makes it possible to perform analysis spatial data, simulate the results of decisions made.

1.2.4. The main tasks of modern cartography.

The importance of cartographic products and cartographic information is constantly increasing. The value of the territorial binding of the area (point) is increasing in such activities as public services, entrepreneurship, environmental research, etc. At present, electronic technology makes it possible to produce cartographic products quickly and in large volumes. But traditional cartographic products on paper are no longer enough. With the development of new information technologies, the need of the population for cartographic information embedded in computer systems is increasing.

For example, compilation of national interactive gazetteers and services related to cadastral work.

Fast and timely updating of cartographic products has always been an urgent task of cartography. Aerospace materials allow you to quickly update and expand the content of traditional maps. But updating a specific map is no longer enough at this time, and updating the databases will be required.

Currently, the costs of creating digital terrain models (DTM) are equal to the costs of preparing maps for publication or even exceed them. At the same time, the created DTMs are not flexible. They do not allow taking into account all possible combinations of properties of topographic objects and all combinations of topographic objects. This is due to the creative nature of obtaining and processing topographic information. Therefore, a clear formalization of knowledge about terrain objects and cartographic knowledge is one of the theoretical problems of cartography.

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………...3

1. Future directions for the development of geospatial

data. The role of cartography in development……...………....………………….4

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………..7

List of sources used……………………………………………..... 8

INTRODUCTION

The history of the development of cartography can be traced back over two millennia. Starting from a simple accumulation of empirical material, cartography in the 18th century for the first time stood out as an independent science. Its subject was determined - a mathematically rigorous mapping of the spherical surface of the planet onto the plane of the map. Shooting becomes the main research method. The theory of cartographic projections is being formed. At the beginning of the 19th century, after the emergence of geodesy, the tasks of cartography narrowed down to the geometric registration of the territory, and cartography itself passed mainly to the military departments, essentially turning into a well-established technological process for organizing and conducting terrain surveys. Over time, geography began to make extensive use of maps as a means of quantitative spatial analysis of natural and economic phenomena. New definitions of cartography have appeared, focused on the use of maps in the framework of modeling theory, theory of knowledge and for practical purposes. The emergence of new opportunities opened up in related sciences (information theory, remote sensing of the earth, automated control) required a new understanding of the role of the map in the knowledge of nature and society. After the publication of the works of I.P. Gerasimov on constructive geography and V.B. Sochava in applied geography, the orientation of geography towards connection with economic activity is increasing. The problems that arose during the transition of geography to the implementation of a constructive-applied function led to the intensification of scientific research to solve them. These studies began to be considered as an independent direction in geography, called geoinformatics. The construction of the theoretical building of geoinformatics has begun, which is still far from complete.

Future directions of development of geospatial data. The role of cartography in development

The use of geospatial information is growing rapidly. There is a growing realization in both government and business circles that understanding location and location is a vital component of effective decision making. Citizens who are not experts in geospatial information, and who are hardly even familiar with the term, are also increasingly using it, interacting with it, and in many cases even contributing to its collection.

As with all technology-driven industries, the future in this case is difficult to predict. However, this article reflects the opinions of recognized groups of experts from a wide variety of geospatial fields and their attempts to offer some vision of how all this will develop over the next 5-10 years.

To try and give a vision of where our community is heading: providers, practitioners and users - this article will touch on whole line aspects of geospatial data. Based on the responses received from the experts, these trends were broken down into common topics covering the main aspects of geospatial data, namely: data creation, maintenance and management; use of geospatial data; technological trends; development of lawmaking and policy; skill requirements and learning approaches; the future role of national mapping agencies; the role of commercial and volunteer geographical information.

According to experts, geographic information will become ubiquitous in almost every aspect of government and citizens' lives. Crisis response is likely to be significantly improved, primarily through the widespread dissemination of more accurate, timely and accessible information - satellite trajectories can be changed, UAVs launched, crowdsourcing results can be used in real time. This data will not only help with immediate response, but will also help improve planning and long-term recovery. This data will also help improve governance by providing citizens with more detailed information and will support economic growth by expanding the resource planning system and therefore improve decision-making. However, this is associated with certain risks, the ubiquitous availability of information, especially where citizens act as a passive and even "unwitting" source of data, increases the possibility of abuse by public and private organizations. Therefore, it is necessary to carefully observe the relevant ethical standards and show responsibility in this area.

Geographic information systems is a software and hardware complex capable of entering, storing, updating, manipulating, analyzing and displaying all types of geographically referenced information.

GIS have the following properties: spatiality; structured data; problem-practical orientation; providing an integrated and systematic approach to the study and mapping of geosystems; adaptability and multivariance of solving problems with the possibility of joint analysis of a significant number of parameters characterizing geosystems, etc.

GIS make it possible to promptly respond to any emerging situation in any territory, with obtaining all the necessary cartographic and thematic information on it. They represent a cartometric study with the simultaneous construction of any maps, plans and diagrams. On the basis of GIS, it is possible to model various processes, phenomena and study the change in their state over time.

The structure of a GIS, as a rule, includes four mandatory subsystems:

Data input providing input and/or processing of spatial data obtained from various sources (maps, etc.);

Storage and retrieval, allowing you to quickly obtain data for appropriate analysis, update and correct them;

Processing and analysis, making it possible to evaluate parameters, solve computational and analytical problems;

Representation (issuance) of data in various forms (maps, tables, block diagrams, digital terrain models, etc.).

Geographic information systems find a place in the scientific and practical activities everywhere where geographically distributed information is used and there is a need for a territorial analysis, a territorial assessment and a territorial forecast.

Currently, GIS technologies are increasingly being used in tourism design and in the operation of tourism resources and tourism industry facilities. It should be noted that the Russian tourism business cannot yet note great achievements in this area. Against the Russian background, only Moscow and St. Petersburg have achieved noticeable success, where information is presented so far in one perspective - electronic map. But there is no real-time binding on them, etc.

GIS can be of great help to a travel company if a GIS map is created with resorts on it, with which the company cooperates, plans for their territories, information about the quality of service, photos of rooms, etc. All this will create a huge advantage over other sellers of a similar tourist product.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, I would like to note that when starting to create and implement an applied GIS, the system developer should be guided in current trends development and use of information technologies, constructively evaluate the available software tools and choose software products and technologies based on criteria that have been clearly developed for themselves. So, if you think about the maps of the future, then, apparently, these will be "intelligent images" (Intelligent Images), synthesizing information from different sources, circulating in computer networks in real time and with variable resolution. Such an opinion was recently expressed by L. Jordan, president of one of the leading American GIS development companies. The user will be able to work with such geoimages interactively and move through them in any direction in two, three or four dimensions.

Similar information.

The study of the history of cartographic science, based primarily on the research of K.A. Salishchev (140), made it possible to single out the main milestones in the development of cartography. The very first cartographic works appeared in primitive society. Evidence of this can serve as the simplest cartographic images among the peoples of Siberia and the Far East; American Indians and Eskimos; Micronesians of Oceania. To this day, drawings relating to the third and second millennium BC have been preserved. Ancient cartographic drawings are known among the peoples of the Ancient East and Egypt. The first scientific cartographic developments appeared in ancient Greece - the Greeks established the sphericity of the Earth and calculated its dimensions, they own the first cartographic projections and the introduction of meridians and parallels into scientific use. The creator of the first image of the Earth was Anaximander of Miletus (610 - 546 BC). Greek thinkers originally imagined the Earth as a disk floating on the surface of the ocean, but already in the fifth century BC, Parmenides suggested that the Earth was spherical. A great contribution to the development of cartographic science was made by the head of the Library of Alexandria, Eratosthenes (276 - 194 BC). It was he who made the determination of the length of the earth's meridian closest to reality. In his work "Geography", Eratosthenes considered the question of the figure of the Earth, the size and shape of its inhabited land - ecumene, showing the latter on the map.

Hipparchus (190 -126 BC) proposed later to build maps on a grid of meridians and parallels, determining the position of points on the earth's surface in latitude and longitude. A detailed presentation of the goals of geographical science, as country studies, as well as general characteristics The state of geographical and cartographic knowledge was given by Sgrabon (about 63 BC -23 AD) in his "Geography" in 17 books. In this work, he summarized and systematized a large factual material known by that time.

The theoretical foundations of cartography were laid by Claudius Ptolemy. In his work "Guide to Geography" in eight books, he predetermined the development of cartographic science for almost fourteen centuries. Ptolemy, developing the regional direction in the development of geography, represented his main task in the cartographic image of the Earth. Criticizing the cylindrical projection, Ptolemy proposed conic and pseudoconic projections, which are still used in an improved form today. Despite the fact that Ptolemy considered the land to be predominant in area over the sea, and considered the Indian Ocean as a closed basin, Ptolemy's work was recognized by cartographers and gained authority for a long time, thanks to the wealth of factual material, the thoughtfulness and rigor of its systematization.

In the IX - X centuries. in the countries of the Arab Caliphate, the so-called "Arab maps" appeared. The execution of these cards was subject to the dogmas of the Koran, which forbade the depiction of people and animals, so the cards were drawn as diagrams that abstract reality as much as possible, using a compass and a ruler in the form of straight lines and arcs of circles.

The further rise of cartography is associated with the onset of the Renaissance. At this time, the development of trade contributed to the rise of navigation, which required grants to help sailors navigate near the coast and on the high seas. So the compass and navigational charts - portolans (XIV-XVI centuries) came into use. Typical portolans did not take into account the sphericity of the Earth, instead of meridians and parallels, portolans covered compass lines showing the direction of the cardinal points of intermediate points. The development of cartography was greatly influenced by the invention of printing in the 15th century, followed by engraving and book printing. In the 16th century, favorable conditions were created in Western Europe, conducive to the development of cartographic science and production. Of great importance for mapping open lands were enterprises for the exploitation of the colonies - the Spanish "Chamber for Trade with India", the Dutch and English "East India Companies". These enterprises had special cartographic institutions in which extensive geographical and cartographic material was collected and processed, and geographical maps were also prepared for their own ships. The stable demand for geographical maps contributed to the emergence of a large number of private cartographic enterprises. Gerard Mercator (1512 - 1594) became the most famous among the cartographers of that era, mainly due to his three outstanding works - a map of Europe in 1554, a large map of the world "for navigators" in 1569 and a capital atlas of 1595. Mercator first used conformal cylindrical projection for the map of the world, explained its significance, convenience and methods of application for navigation, laying the foundation for the development of scientific methods for using maps. Mercator used projections in accordance with the shape and position of the mapped territories, as well as the purpose of the map.

Cartography also developed in Russia; in this regard, one can note the outstanding work of Russian cartographers of the 16th century. - "The Big Drawing for the whole Moscow state", as well as the work of the SU. Remezov, which collected and systematized extensive geographical material ("Drawing Book of Siberia" (1701), "Chorographic Drawing Book" (1697-1711), "Service Drawing Book" (1702-1730), etc. .).

In the second half of the XVII - early XVIII century. cartographic works have taken a prominent place in the activities of the largest academies of sciences in Paris, Berlin and St. Petersburg. A major contribution to science was made by the astronomical and geodetic work of French scientists to determine the shape and size of the Earth. In England, in 1675, in order to facilitate the determination of longitudes at sea, the Greenwich Observatory was established, whose employees made a significant contribution to the development of cartography.

WITH early XIX V. for the armies, detailed and accurate maps of the area turned out to be necessary, the care of creating which was taken over by the military topographic services. At the same time, other, new areas of cartographic activity began to appear, brought to life by the development of the natural sciences; geology, meteorology and soil science, as well as economics and statistics. It is with them that many innovations in cartography are associated; isotherms (A. Humboldt, 1817), pseudo-isolines (N. Ravn, 1856), point method, tapes of cargo and passenger flows, etc.

In 1902, the Austrian geographer Karl Peuker suggested the formation of cartography as an independent science of graphic representation of the world around us. Later, the German geographer Max Eckert published the cartography work “The Science of Maps, Research and the Basic Provisions of Cartography”, in which the tasks of scientific cartography were charged with considering the whole variety of cartographic works, analyzing the essence, tasks and purposes of maps, establishing certain norms on the basis of which practical cartography did the mapping. Methods and processes for making maps, methods for their study were not included by Eckert in the sphere of interests of scientific cartography.