The term art is ambiguous most often it is used. Artist is an ambiguous term

Like all three-dimensional concepts, the term "art" has many meanings. In a broad sense art is a form of social consciousness, a way of mastering the spiritual world; in this interpretation, art includes theater, painting, dance, architecture, design, poetry, and music. In a narrow sense, art is understood as a skillful, masterful handling of any objects - with people around, with staff (for a manager), with voters (for a politician), with sports equipment (for athletes), in cooking (for culinary specialists), in the portrayal of an actor.

The concept of art is closely related to the categories of "beauty" and "talent". Contact with art leads to emotional excitement, empathy, spiritual purification (or, in the words of Aristotle, catharsis). Why a person is engaged in art, what are the driving forces behind the creation of beauty - these questions still do not have an unambiguous answer. There are only various theories, which are as follows:

- game theory is based on the position that the game is an extracultural phenomenon, it is characteristic of humans and animals. In the course of the game, skills and abilities are formed, the talents of individuals are manifested in the process. creative expression;

- the labor theory says that in the process of the development of society and under the influence of the division of labor in the areas of material and spiritual production, people have new needs that are satisfied by artists;

- the theological theory of the origin of art implies the fact of divine investment in the human consciousness of a craving for art. The individual and society need not only bodily food, but also spiritual food; This is what distinguishes man from animals, makes him sublime, aesthetic, harmoniously developed.

Through art, a person learns the surrounding reality, but does it differently than with the help of science. Rational knowledge fades into the background in art, making room for subjective sensations, fantasy, emotions, positive or negative attitudes. Artistic knowledge when contemplating objects of art (paintings, sculptures, films, etc.) can be visual, semantic and figurative. Passing through the prism of individual experience, perception, character of a person, an artistic image or meaning becomes a part of personality, memory, behavioral determinants. In this sense artistic image is one of the main elements of the education and upbringing of the individual, part of the worldview and values ​​of a person. Art, therefore, is addressed not to rational study, but to experience - in the world of artistic images, a person must live like he lives in reality, enjoying it aesthetically, but being aware of its speculative nature, limited by the framework of mental structures.

Enjoying art, a person gets a rich experience of "living other people's lives", which significantly pushes the boundaries of everyday life. Literary characters and movie heroes, theatrical images and monuments historical figures, paintings by great artists and writings outstanding composers, singers and pop performers - they all become an integral part of our horizons, knowledge, worldview, relationships with other people, identifying ourselves with any people.

Art in the modern economic system must also be considered as part of social production. More and more groups of youth and adults now want to work in the field of art, as in vocal, dance, painting, literature, theater, design, feature and animation films, computer games you can fully express your creative impulses, talent, abilities, dreams. In this sense art is the opposite of routine work where initiative, imagination, creativity are not required. Art as a production and cultural sphere based on a certain infrastructure(theaters and cinemas, philharmonics, circuses, exhibition halls etc.) and labor markets(directors, screenwriters, playwrights, art historians, etc.).

In art, it is customary to classify certain genre trends according to certain gradations - baroque, avant-garde, classicism, symbolism, and so on. Thus, stylistic characteristics and techniques are combined into enlarged groups.

Contemporary art does not stand still. All its genres and trends are constantly evolving, sometimes giving rise to misunderstanding, rejection and outright rejection. Subsequently, rejection and shocking are replaced by addiction, reassessment, the inclusion of these art objects in the list of classic and generally accepted ones.

The concept of art

Word " art" both in Russian and in many other languages ​​it is used in two senses:

• V narrow sense it is a specific form of practical-spiritual development of the world;
• V wide- the highest level of skill, skills, regardless of the way in which they are manifested (the art of a stove-maker, doctor, baker, etc.).

- a special subsystem of the spiritual sphere of society, which is a creative reproduction of reality in artistic images.

Initially, art was called a high degree of skill in any business. This meaning of the word is still present in the language when we talk about the art of a doctor or teacher, about martial art or oratory. Later, the concept of "art" began to be increasingly used to describe a special activity aimed at reflecting and transforming the world in accordance with aesthetic standards, i.e. according to the laws of beauty. At the same time, the original meaning of the word has been preserved, since the highest skill is required to create something beautiful.

Subject The arts are the world and man in the totality of their relations with each other.

Form of Existence art - a work of art (poem, painting, play, film, etc.).

Art also uses special means for reproduction of reality: for literature it is a word, for music it is sound, for fine art it is color, for sculpture it is volume.

Target art is dual: for the creator it is artistic self-expression, for the viewer it is the enjoyment of beauty. In general, beauty is as closely connected with art as truth with science and goodness with morality.

Art is important component spiritual culture of mankind, a form of knowledge and reflection of the reality surrounding a person. In terms of the potential for understanding and transforming reality, art is not inferior to science. However, the ways of understanding the world by science and art are different: if science uses strict and unambiguous concepts for this, then art -.

Art, as an independent and as a branch of spiritual production, grew out of the production of the material, was originally woven into it as an aesthetic, but purely utilitarian moment. an artist by nature, and he strives to bring beauty everywhere in one way or another. The aesthetic activity of a person is constantly manifested in everyday life, social life, and not only in art. going on aesthetic exploration of the world a public person.

Functions of art

Art performs a number public functions.

Functions of art can be summarized as follows:

• aesthetic function allows you to reproduce reality according to the laws of beauty, forms an aesthetic taste;
• social function manifested in the fact that art has an ideological impact on society, thereby transforming social reality;
• compensatory functions allows you to restore peace of mind, solve psychological problems, “escape” for a while from the gray everyday life, compensate for the lack of beauty and harmony in everyday life;
• hedonic function reflects the ability of art to bring pleasure to a person;
• cognitive function allows you to know reality and analyze it with the help of artistic images;
• predictive function reflects the ability of art to make predictions and predict the future;
• educational function manifested in the ability of works of art to shape a person's personality.

cognitive function

First of all, this cognitive function. Works of art are valuable sources of information about complex social processes.

Of course, not everyone in the surrounding world is interested in art, and if they are, then to a different degree, and the very approach of art to the object of its knowledge, the angle of its vision is very specific compared to other forms of social consciousness. The main object of knowledge in art has always been and remains. That is why art in general and in particular fiction called humanism.

educational function

Educational function - the ability to have an important impact on the ideological and moral development of a person, its self-improvement or fall.

And yet, cognitive and educational functions are not specific to art: other forms of social consciousness also perform these functions.

aesthetic function

The specific function of art, which makes it art in the true sense of the word, is its aesthetic function.

Perceiving and comprehending a work of art, we do not just assimilate its content (like the content of physics, biology, mathematics), but let this content pass through the heart, emotions, give sensually concrete images created by the artist an aesthetic assessment as beautiful or ugly, sublime or base. , tragic or comic. Art forms in us the ability to give such aesthetic assessments, to distinguish the truly beautiful and sublime from all kinds of ersatz.

hedonic function

Cognitive, educational and aesthetic are merged in art together. Thanks to the aesthetic moment, we enjoy the content artwork and it is in the process of enjoyment that we are enlightened and educated. In this regard, they talk about hedonistic(translated from Greek - pleasure) functions art.

For many centuries, in socio-philosophical and aesthetic literature, the dispute about the relationship between beauty in art and reality has continued. This reveals two main positions. According to one of them (in Russia it was supported by N. G. Chernyshevsky), the beautiful in life is always and in all respects higher than the beautiful in art. In this case, art appears as a copy of the typical characters and objects of reality itself and a surrogate for reality. Obviously, an alternative concept is preferable (G. V. F. Hegel, A. I. Herzen and others): the beautiful in art is higher than the beautiful in life, since the artist sees more accurately and deeper, feels stronger and brighter, and that is why he can inspire with his the art of others. Otherwise (being a surrogate or even a duplicate), society would not need art.

works of art, being the substantive embodiment of human genius, become the most important spiritual and values ​​that are passed down from generation to generation, the property of the aesthetic society. Mastery of culture, aesthetic education is impossible without familiarization with art. The works of art of past centuries capture the spiritual world of thousands of generations, without mastering which a person cannot become a person in the true sense of the word. Each person is a kind of bridge between the past and the future. He must master what the past generation left him, creatively comprehend his spiritual experience, understand his thoughts, feelings, joys and sufferings, ups and downs, and pass it all on to posterity. This is the only way history moves, and in this movement a huge army belongs to art, expressing the complexity and richness of the spiritual world of man.

Kinds of art

The primary form of art was a special syncretic(undivided) complex of creative activity. For primitive man there was no separate music, or literature, or theater. Everything was merged together in a single ritual action. Later, separate types of art began to stand out from this syncretic action.

Kinds of art- these are historically established forms of artistic reflection of the world, using special means to build an image - sound, color, body movement, word, etc. Each art form has its own special varieties- genera and genres, which together provide a variety of artistic attitudes to reality. Let us briefly consider the main types of art and some of their varieties.

Literature uses verbal and written means to build images. There are three main types of literature - drama, epic and lyricism and numerous genres - tragedy, comedy, novel, story, poem, elegy, short story, essay, feuilleton, etc.

Music uses audio. Music is divided into vocal (intended for singing) and instrumental. Genres of music - opera, symphony, overture, suite, romance, sonata, etc.

Dance uses means of plastic movements to build images. Allocate ritual, folk, ballroom,

modern dances, ballet. Directions and styles of dance - waltz, tango, foxtrot, samba, polonaise, etc.

Painting displays reality on a plane by means of color. Genres of painting - portrait, still life, landscape, as well as everyday, animalistic (image of animals), historical genres.

Architecture forms a spatial environment in the form of structures and buildings for human life. It is divided into residential, public, landscape gardening, industrial, etc. Allocate also architectural styles- Gothic, Baroque, Rococo, Art Nouveau, Classicism, etc.

Sculpture creates works of art that have volume and three-dimensional shape. Sculpture is round (bust, statue) and relief (convex image). The size is divided into easel, decorative and monumental.

Arts and Crafts related to application needs. This includes art objects that can be used in everyday life - dishes, fabrics, tools, furniture, clothes, jewelry, etc.

Theater organizes a special stage action through the play of actors. The theater can be dramatic, opera, puppet, etc.

Circus presents a spectacular and entertaining action with unusual, risky and funny numbers in a special arena. These are acrobatics, balancing act, gymnastics, horse riding, juggling, magic tricks, pantomime, clowning, animal training and so on.

Movie is the development of theatrical action based on modern technical audiovisual means. The types of cinematography include fiction, documentary films, animation. By genre, comedies, dramas, melodramas, adventure films, detectives, thrillers, etc. are distinguished.

Photo fixes documentary visual images with the help of technical means - optical and chemical or digital. The genres of photography correspond to the genres of painting.

Stage includes small forms of performing arts - dramaturgy, music, choreography, illusions, circus performances, original performances, etc.

Graphics, radio art, etc. can be added to the listed types of art.

In order to show the common features of different types of art and their differences, various grounds for their classification are proposed. So, there are types of art:

• by the number of means used - simple (painting, sculpture, poetry, music) and complex, or synthetic (ballet, theater, cinema);
• in terms of the ratio of works of art and reality - pictorial, depicting reality, copying it, (realistic painting, sculpture, photography), and expressive, where the artist's fantasy and imagination create a new reality (ornament, music);
• in relation to space and time - spatial ( art, sculpture, architecture), temporal (literature, music) and space-time (theatre, cinema);
• by the time of occurrence - traditional (poetry, dance, music) and new (photography, cinema, television, video), usually using rather complex technical means to build an image;
• according to the degree of applicability in everyday life - applied (arts and crafts) and fine (music, dance).

Each type, genus or genre reflects a special side or facet of human life, but brought together, these components of art give a comprehensive art picture peace.

The need for artistic creation or enjoyment of works of art increases along with the growth of a person's cultural level. Art becomes the more necessary, the further a person is separated from the animal state.

Rational level moral consciousness includes a set of moral norms, principles, ideals, as well as moral values ​​and assessments.

Moral standards - the simplest type of moral requirement, acting as a prescription or prohibition of any form of behavior and expressing the imperative (imperative) nature of morality. Exactly moral standards are the main regulators of people's behavior, the benchmarks by which their actions are verified. The conformity or non-compliance of an act with a moral norm allows us to draw a conclusion about the right or wrong behavior. Such norms include the well-known biblical commandments: do not kill, do not steal, etc.

There are a lot of moral norms that regulate human behavior. It is difficult for a person to assimilate them if he does not rely on the principles of morality. Moral principle - this is a generalized expression of moral requirements covering all human behavior in a certain area moral relations. Among the basic principles of morality, the so-called " Golden Rule morality": always act as you would like to be treated towards you. It is impossible to imagine morality without such principles as humanism and justice.

A special place in morality is occupied by values ​​and assessments. In the most general sense moral value - this is the moral meaning of a particular phenomenon (act, relationship, requirement), and the definition of value is called evaluation. Norms and principles of morality show how to act, values orient on how best to act, and the assessment defines the moral value of the act.

Among the values ​​of morality, good and good, duty and conscience, honor and dignity, happiness and the meaning of life stand out. Both the requirements for behavior and the behavior itself can act as moral values. Morally valuable is both the category of duty and adherence to duty, for example, in the performance of official duties.

Among all moral values, a person chooses for himself the most significant ones, on which he focuses, to achieve which he strives. The desire to achieve certain moral values ​​is called value orientation.

The most common element of moral consciousness is moral ideal. It can be defined as a synthesis of moral norms, principles and assessments, as common in a given society ideas about a morally perfect person and his behavior. moral ideal, unlike norms and principles, is a largely hypothetical phenomenon, aimed at the future.

Functions of morality

The role of morality in public life is revealed through its functions. Among the functions of morality, they usually distinguish regulatory, evaluative-orienting, cognitive, educational, etc.

1. Regulatory function reveals the main content and purpose of morality. Although there are other social regulators in society (politics, law, administrative regulations), moral regulation cannot be replaced by any of them. On the contrary, it is morality that permeates all the regulative activities carried out in society.

2. Estimated-orienting function directs people's behavior to establish relationships based on the principles of goodness, justice and humanism.

3. Cognitive function indicates that morality, on the one hand, arises as a result of people's knowledge of social reality, as an awareness of social needs, and on the other hand, by mastering the norms and principles of morality, each person gets to know society and the people around him more deeply, acquires knowledge and communication skills .

4. Educational the function is that morality teaches a person to observe certain rules life together, forms a person who cares not only about his own well-being, but also about the interests of the people around him.

6.4. Religion and its role in society. world religions

Religion has a special place in the sphere of spiritual culture.

Under religion understand the views and ideas of people, as well as the corresponding activities, based on the belief in the supernatural, primarily in non-natural beings standing above the world.

In developed religions, such a supernatural being is God.

The religious worldview is characterized by the doubling of the world into the earthly world, this world and heavenly, otherworldly, as well as the recognition of the immortality of the soul. Religion presupposes the presence of a mysterious (mystical) connection between a person and God or other supernatural forces, the worship of these forces, the possibility of a person communicating with them.

The roots of religion

The emergence and existence of religion is due to a number of causes and conditions, the totality of which is usually called the roots of religion. Among them are social, psychological, epistemological roots.

social roots Religions are connected with the fact that a person is a part of nature and society, he obeys the objective laws of their development. These laws are not fully known by people, and therefore many natural and social phenomena are incomprehensible and inexplicable for them. They make a person not free, powerless in the face of the objective conditions of life. Trying to resist these conditions, people find their explanation and refuge in religion. Social roots, in turn, are the basis for the emergence psychological roots religion. Being unable to explain and overcome various phenomena of natural and social reality (death and illness of loved ones, social injustice, etc.), a person begins to experience fear, suffering, despair and other negative mental states, the way out of which he finds in religion .

The emergence and existence of religion is largely facilitated by a person's ability to imagine, the ability of consciousness to abstract, to replace real objects with ideal images. This is fraught with the danger of separating these images from real things, endowing them with properties and qualities that do not exist in reality, which is epistemological roots religion.

The Structure of Religion

The structure of religion usually includes religious consciousness, a religious cult and religious organizations.

religious consciousness is a set of ideas, views, ideas, moods, emotions, which expresses the attitude of a person and society to the real existence of the supernatural, other world.

It is characterized by faith, sensual visibility, images created by the imagination, a combination of the reflection of reality with illusions, strong emotionality, and special religious vocabulary.

In addition to religious consciousness, all religions have cult - system of established rituals, rituals, external form manifestations of faith. The cult includes, for example, the sign of the cross, bows, procession, baptism, prayers, worship, religious holidays, etc.

The early forms of religion were characterized by such manifestations of the cult as ritual dances around the images of animals, incantation of spirits, and sacrifices. The means of worship are church utensils, a cross, an icon, sacred books, etc.

organizational forms religions are the church and sects.

Church is a religious organization of the clergy and believers, based on a common belief and religious cult. Sects - these are religious communities that have broken away from the church, retaining the foundations of belief inherent in a particular church, but differing from it in some features of religious doctrine and worship.

Forms of religion

The emergence of religion is attributed to the period of a relatively high stage of development primitive society(40-50 thousand years ago). The early forms of religion are totemism, magic, fetishism, animism, shamanism, cult of ancestors and etc.

At present, there are many different kinds of religious beliefs and church organizations. This is due to the fact that although belief in the supernatural is a hallmark of all religions, the understanding of this supernatural and the forms of worship of it different people and peoples can differ significantly. In addition to the early religious forms preserved in a number of places, national religions(Judaism, Hinduism, Confucianism, Taoism, Shintoism, etc.) and world religions. A special place is occupied by world religions, which have their adherents all over the world, regardless of state borders and political regimes. The latter include Buddhism, Christianity and Islam with their many offshoots, churches and sects.

Buddhism

First in time of appearance world religion- Buddhism. It originated in ancient India in the 6th-5th centuries. BC. and got its name from the name of its founder buddha, that is, "enlightened", "awakened", to whom the way of salvation of mankind was opened. At present, Buddhism is most widespread in the countries of the South, Southeast and East Asia. Buddhist communities exist in many other countries, including Russia (Buryatia, Kalmykia, Tuva). In a number of states (Burma, Cambodia, Thailand) Buddhism is the state religion, and in some countries (Japan) it is combined with national religions (Shintoism).

The main idea of ​​Buddhism is the doctrine of "four noble truths":

• 1) in every life there is suffering;
• 2) the cause of suffering is in the egoistic desires of a person;
• 3) you can get rid of suffering only by getting rid of these egoistic desires;
• 4) the "noble middle eightfold path" leads to this liberation, that is, the path consisting of eight steps (steps). Having traveled this path, a person reaches nirvana - the highest enlightenment of the spirit, absolute peace.

Like any religion, Buddhism pays considerable attention to moral requirements, which are based on the principle of non-violence. Buddhism preaches abstinence from causing harm or pain and love for all living things.

Feature of the Buddhist cult - meditation, which actually replaces prayer. Meditation is aimed at bringing a person into a state of deep concentration, detachment from the outside world and unity with the spiritual world.

Christianity

Christianity has a history of two thousand years and is currently the most widespread religion on earth. It got its name from Jesus Christ its founder and object of worship, who adopted martyrdom for the atonement of original sin and the happiness of mankind. The teachings of Jesus Christ formed the basis of Christian dogma, which includes the idea of triune essence of God(God the Father, God the Son and God the Holy Spirit), the idea of ​​the sinfulness of man as the cause of all his misfortunes, the doctrine of deliverance from sins through prayer and repentance, the preaching of love for one's neighbor, humility and forgiveness. Christianity is based on faith in other world and the second coming of Christ to carry out the Last Judgment on sinners and recompense the righteous. The moral positions of Christianity are expressed in the well-known commandments set forth in Sermon on the Mount of Christ.

During its development in the XI century. Christianity split into Western (Catholicism) and eastern (Orthodoxy). In the XV century. emerged in Catholicism Protestant direction. Protestantism is the general name for various creeds that arose during the Reformation as a protest against the Roman Catholic Church (Lutheranism, Calvinism). The main thesis of Protestantism, put forward by Martin Luther, is "salvation by faith", which does not require the mediation of the church and the clergy.

At present, Christianity exists in the form of these three branches (Orthodoxy, Catholicism and Protestantism). Orthodoxy is professed mainly Slavic peoples, Catholicism and Protestantism are most common in Europe and America.

Islam

Islam (Islamism) arose in the 7th century. among the Arabian Arab tribes and currently has about a billion of its adherents, mainly in Asia and Africa. Considered the founder of Islam prophet Muhammad, who received the word Allah and carried it to the people. This Word has become Koran- holy book Muslims.

Islam translated into Russian means "submission". Man, as a weak being, must trust in Allah, hope for his help and support. Islam requires Muslims to strictly fulfill five basic duties ("pillars of Islam"): to believe that "there is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is his prophet"; pray five times a day; observe fasting (uraza); give alms, including once a year to share income in favor of the poor (zakat); make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in a lifetime. Sometimes a sixth is added to these five "pillars" - jihad, or ghazavat, that is, a holy war with the infidels.

One of the hallmarks of Islam is sharia, which intertwines legal, religious, moral norms, as well as establishes penalties for their violation, and which regulates human behavior in all spheres of his life.

Functions of Religion

The role of religion in society is determined by the functions it performs, which include ideological, compensatory, communicative, integration, cultural, educational.

1. ideological religion realizes the function due to the presence in it of a certain type of views on a person and his place in the world, on the world as a whole and the reasons for his existence.

2. Compensatory function is manifested in the fact that religion makes up for the lack of people's knowledge about the world, relieves social and mental tension, compensates for the lack of sincerity in secular communication with religious communication.

3. Communicative the function of religion is expressed in the exchange of information between believers with each other, in their communication with each other, as well as with God and the ministers of the church.

4. Integration the function has a dual character: on the one hand, religion brings people together, unites them, on the other hand, it divides them, an example of which are religious wars, social conflicts based on religious differences.

5. cultural function is that religion stores the cultural experience of mankind, passes it on from generation to generation, is itself part of the culture of human society.

6. Possessing great moral potential, religion preaches positive moral values, calls for decent behavior, thereby realizing educational function.

6.5. Art and its types

Term "art" polysemantic. Most often it is used in two meanings:

• 1) skill, ability, dexterity, dexterity, based on knowledge of the matter;
• 2) a specific type of spiritual and practical development and aesthetic attitude to reality.

It is in the second meaning that art enters the content of the spiritual culture of society.

Art reflects the world in artistic images in which reality is intertwined with fiction. This imagery is necessary in order to:

• express generalized, important, close to the mass of people in a personal form;
• expand, deepen the life experience of an individual with the world created by the artist's imagination.

• influence the feelings and emotions of people, forcing them to empathize and express their attitude to the content of the artistic image.

Art allows a person to reveal his possibilities, which he cannot realize in real life helps him to enrich himself intellectually, to join the spiritual experience of mankind.

Functions of art

The variety of forms of aesthetic assimilation of reality gives rise to a variety of functions of art, which include cognitive, information-communicative, value-oriented, educational, aesthetic.

1. Essence cognitive function lies in the fact that art gives a person knowledge about the world and about the person himself. But if science cognizes the world through the achievement of truth, morality reflects the world through the categories of good and evil, then art enriches a person with knowledge in an artistic and figurative form. It teaches to see the world through the prism of imagery, giving a person the opportunity to translate these images into a rational form. Art does not aim to give people any special knowledge, such as science. It does not seek to identify patterns or solve material and practical problems. Like science, art seeks to reveal the general, but unlike science, it presents this general not in the form of generalized abstractions, but in the form of specific sensually visual images.

2. Art is very informative. It serves to generalize individual experience and express it through other forms of the individual. These forms take the form of works of literature, cinema, painting, music, theater, and so on. Works of art embody cultural, historical, national, religious and other features of a particular era, a particular people, as well as the features of the craftsmanship and worldview of the creator of the work. Through these creations, not only information is transmitted about the world reflected in them, but also communication links are established between the author and the viewer or reader, as well as between art lovers themselves, since it makes people exchange opinions, express their positions, express their attitude to works of art. All of this is content. information and communication functions of art.

3. value orientation the function of art manifests itself in two ways: on the one hand, the works of art themselves are cultural property acquire special significance for people; on the other hand, the content that art carries orients people in the system public values, gives you the opportunity to choose for yourself life guidelines.

4. Close in content to the value-oriented function is the function educational. Art always involves the impact on the worldview and behavior of people. Through his work, the artist seeks to convey to the viewer, listener, reader the norms and values ​​​​of social life that are close to him. true art carries a high humanistic charge, focuses on achieving the ideal. But this ideal is not reduced to a "positive hero-ideal", it is an aesthetic ideal, which is designed to evoke in people good feelings, desires and actions, despite the fact that the author can also refer to negative images and to satire.

5. aesthetic The functions of art were already given paramount importance by the ancients. It consists in the ability of art to form the aesthetic tastes, abilities and needs of a person, to awaken his creativity, to give pleasure and enjoyment from the contemplation of beauty.

The structure of art

The structure of art is distinguished by its multiplicity of manifestations, flexibility, variability. In art, it is customary to distinguish kinds(painting, architecture, sculpture, literature, music, theater, cinema and others), childbirth(e.g. epic and lyric), genres(for example, a story, novel, poem in literature; suite, oratorio, symphony in music; portrait, landscape, still life in painting; gothic, baroque, classicism in architecture).

Most often, when speaking about the structural elements of art, they mean its types. The division of art into different types is due both to the variety of spheres of reality covered by artistic creativity, and the variety of forms of expression by the creator of his aesthetic vision of the world. The boundaries between individual types of art are not absolute, they often combine or interpenetrate. Thus, the theater organically combines dramaturgy, music, dance, theatrical painting.

The existing system of art forms is historically changeable. Expanding the boundaries artistic creativity leads to the emergence of new species. For example, in the XX century. art forms such as cinema, photography arose, and television art is being formed. This has led to the fact that among scientists there is still no consensus on which areas of artistic creativity can be considered its types. In addition to literature, sculpture, architecture, theatre, painting, music, choreography and applied arts, which have traditionally been considered the main types of art, and newly emerged - photography, film and television, some experts refer to the art forms, for example, the art of urban planning, gastronomic art, hairdressing. But such an expansion of the boundaries of art is hardly justified and, rather, refers to the understanding of art in a broad sense as a high level skill.

Each historical epoch brings to the fore those types of art that are more capable of reflecting the spirit of the time, the characteristics of the culture of a given historical period (for example, painting and architecture in the Renaissance, cinema and television at the present time).

Review questions

• 1. How does the spiritual life of society differ from the material?
• 2. What is the content of the spiritual sphere of society?
• 3. What are the main elements of the spiritual sphere of society.
• 4. Which definition of culture do you like best? Why?
• 5. How material culture different from the spiritual?
• 6. What is meant by types of culture? Name the new types of culture.
• 7. What is the specificity of morality and its significance in the life of society and each person?
• 8. What place do moral values ​​and norms occupy in the structure of morality? Give examples of moral values ​​and norms.
• 9. Conduct a comparative analysis of moral and legal norms.

• 10. What are the reasons for the emergence and existence of religion?
• 11. Why are Buddhism, Christianity and Islam called world religions? What are their similarities and differences?
• 12. Why does religion play an important role in public life?
• 13. How does aesthetic knowledge of the world differ from ordinary and scientific knowledge?

Art- a special form of mastering the world, the basis of which is the aesthetic attitude of a person to reality (Greek aesteticos - feeling, sensual).

The universal nature of man's aesthetic attitude to reality is undeniable.

Aesthetic experiences are an attributive characteristic of a specifically human way of being in the world.

However, in most of its types and forms, the aesthetic aspect is secondary, subordinate (material production, science, law, sports, etc.).

Only in art does the aesthetic have a self-contained status, acquire a basic and independent meaning.

The term "art" is used most often in two main meanings:

1) skill, ability, dexterity in any form practical activities;

2) special shape human activity, focused on the creation of works of art (artistic creativity), in which aesthetic consciousness turns from an accompanying element into the main goal.

The noted sphere of artistic creativity, historically developing, forms a special subsystem of culture - artistic culture, functioning according to immanent laws and having a number of specific features.

Art, unlike other forms of spiritual activity, is focused on emotional and sensory sphere person.

The sensually visual nature of works of art, combined with a special arsenal of expressive and visual means provides him with a colossal power of influence on a person, his beliefs and value orientations.

The subject and subjectivity of the artist, his freedom, his own vision and experience of the world come to the fore in art. Therefore, genuine art is democratic, humanistic and anti-authoritarian in its essence.

A special philosophical science is engaged in the study of the nature and specifics of a person's aesthetic attitude to reality, the laws of artistic creativity - aesthetics (The concept was introduced in the 18th century. A. Baumgarten ).

Philosophical and aesthetic views developed Aristotle , AND . Kant and other philosophers.

As a philosophy of art, aesthetics is impressively represented in art G. Hegel .

Among domestic researchers of art are widely known A. Herzen, V. Belinsky, N. Berdyaev, L. Gumilyov, A. Losev, D. Likhachev, E. Ilyenkov and others.

Historians believe that art dates back to the era Upper Paleolithic and has 300-400 centuries of its evolution.

In modern philosophical literature there is no single point of view on the problem of the origin of art.

There are religious, playful, erotic, imitative, labor and some other hypotheses explaining its genesis.

Art realizes the tasks of cultural self-determination of the individual and social communities, the transmission of the artistic experience of mankind, the organization of the aesthetic relationship of man to the world, and, ultimately, the reproduction of man as a universal and integral being.

Art Functions:

· cognitive;

educational;

axiological;

· communicative;

aesthetic.

9.3.3. Religion as a form of spiritual culture

Religion(from lat. religion- “piety”, “piety”, “sanctity”) - worldview, worldview and attitude based on faith in real existence one or another variety of supernatural forces and their decisive influence on the universe and human life.

Philosophical understanding of this phenomenon of culture involves the formulation and detailed interpretation of the following tasks :

definition of the essence of religion and place in the system of worldview;

identification of social and psychological aspects religion, its ontological and epistemological status;

explication moral sense religion and its role in the life of society, in the spiritual evolution of man and humanity, etc.

The religious attitude of man to the world is universal.

It arises on the basis of a person's desire to gain a direct connection with the Absolute, and religion comprehends and in various versions interprets the evolution and horizons of the spiritual connection between man and the Absolute.

Therefore, religion is a universal phenomenon, its content is the subject of individual faith and a worldview paradigm adopted as a result of free choice, and religious consciousness is distinguished by figurativeness and is addressed mainly to the emotional and sensory sphere of a person.

In the history of philosophical thought, several concepts have developed that explain the origin and essence of religion:

in the opinion I. Kant , religion is the knowledge of our duties in the form of divine commandments, but not in the form of sanctions (arbitrary, random for themselves prescriptions of some alien will), but as the essential laws of any free will;

· For Hegel religion - the self-consciousness of the absolute spirit or the knowledge of the divine spirit about itself through mediation by the finite human spirit;

considered religion as a transformed form of reflection of human existence L . Feuerbach ;

· F. Engels interpreted it as a fantastic reflection of external circumstances dominating people in their real life;

in the opinion E. Durkheim , religion is an ideological mechanism that ensures the integrity of society through the sacralization of basic social ties;

· 3. Freud considered religion a collective neurosis, a mass illusion rooted in the Oedipus complex;

· W. James believed religious ideas are innate, the source of which is something supernatural.

Religion is a systemic socio-cultural education, including religious consciousness, religious cult and religious organizations.

religious consciousness represents two relatively independent levels - religious ideology and religious psychology. In modern developed religions, religious ideology includes theology, religious philosophy, theological concepts of certain spheres of society (economics, politics, law, etc.).

religious cult- a set of symbolic actions associated with practical and spiritual appeal to God.

Religious organizations- these are associations of followers of a particular religion, arising on the basis of a common belief and cult.

The main type of religious organization is church - a religious institution that regulates both relations within religious associations and ties with secular social institutions.

Religion is a multifaceted and multi-valued phenomenon. Fulfilling worldview, compensatory, communicative, integrating functions, it is generated by special patterns of social dynamics. Social processes will ultimately determine its fate.

INTRODUCTION .................................................. ............................................... 3

TOPIC 1. PHILOSOPHY OF BEING .............................................................. .............. 4

1.1. Ontology as the doctrine of being. Basic forms of being

and their relationship ............................................................... ........................................... 4

in philosophy and science .............................................................. ...................................... 5

1.3. System-structural and dynamic organization of being.

Movement and development as attributes of being ....................................................... ..... 6

1.4. The principle of global evolutionism .............................................. 7

1.5. Spatio-temporal structure of being. Space

and time in inanimate and living nature .............................................. ............... 9

TOPIC 2. PHILOSOPHY OF NATURE .............................................. ....... eleven

2.1. The concept of nature in philosophy and science .............................................. 11

2.2. Nature as a self-developing system: physical and cosmological

logical and biogeochemical strategies scientific research nature........ 13

2.3. Nature as a habitat. natural and artificial

habitat................................................ ........................................... 14

2.4. The biosphere and the laws of its existence .............................. 15

2.5. The coevolutionary imperative and ecological values ​​of modern

changing civilization. Problem sustainable development systems

«society-nature».................................................................. .................................... 16

TOPIC 3. DIALECTICS AND ITS ALTERNATIVES .............................. 18

3.1. Historical forms of dialectics .................................................................. . 18

3.2. Dialectics and Metaphysics in the History of Philosophy .................................. 20

3.3. Materialistic dialectics as a system of principles,

3.4. The value of dialectics in cognition and medical practice........ 27

Art as a structural element of human culture is its universal language, the universal language, functioning in all social time and in all social space.

A. N. Iliadi argued that it is enough to present at least one of the countless masterpieces of art in order to understand what actual significance they retain for the present, since they are, first of all, monuments (often the only ones) that, in an emphatically emotional form, testify to the life of past eras, about social processes and events from the life of those generations under which they were created. Therefore, according to them, in all possible versatility, the descendants of the culture of past eras are recreated in the unity of its material and spiritual sides. Even when the testimonies of historians and scientific treatises, political and religious doctrines, codes of morality and morality have been preserved from this era, art and only art can unite all this into an integrity, isomorphic to the life of a seemingly irretrievably past era. This happens because art conveys to us not just information about the facts of history, events and scientific discoveries. Masterpieces of art carry through the centuries the meaning and meaning of life, as it seemed to the person of that era, not only in the general tribal plan, but also in the personal experience of significance, and in the sense of their life activity, their struggle for hopes and ideals, from which thoughts ultimately crystallize, aspirations, experiences and struggle for the future or against it of certain people, estates, classes, peoples, states.

“The significance of art as a universal language of human culture,” A. N. Iliadi rightly concluded, “is enshrined in the artistic and figurative structure of its constructions, making it the most complete of all language systems known to mankind (natural languages, languages ​​of science), available for the education of humanity as a whole, and not only outside the ethnic or state boundaries of a given era, but also in subsequent centuries. Thus, a kind of dialogue is established between different generations, actualizing the experience of the past life activity and creating the possibility of a further “jump” into the social future from the springboard of this actualized experience.

Thus, art as a universal language of culture is, on the one hand, the reproduction of this culture in its specific systems, i.e., the reproduction of a concrete historical way of life of people of different eras and ethnic regions, and on the other hand, the affirmation and development of the reflected way of life, reflected culture. This is a complex mechanism of dialectics of culture and art, a way of life and its artistic resultant.

Art, being a universal language of culture, a special sign system, uses various signs. But the signs are purely artistic.

Art sign- a term denoting reality not in the purely objective being of art, but rather in its functioning.

Because of this, the starting point is not the problem of the sign as such, but the problem of isolating sign diversity, which manifests itself primarily in social life - consumption, perception of art. Element art form, whether it is a melodic turn, an architectural detail, or an image of a separate object considered separately in painting, has four properties of a sign:

• 1) it has meaning;
• 2) informs us about something different from it;
• 3) is used to convey information (although not ordinary, but colored by the emotional and aesthetic attitude of the author to the represented);
• 4) functions in a semiotic situation (as long as the work is not perceived by us, it does not exist for us as a phenomenon of art). Therefore, such an element can be called an artistic sign.

But four more properties distinguish this artistic sign from the usual one. Each means in art is highly ambiguous, while the sign is singular and stable in meaning. The ambiguity of each of the expressive means of art has a dual nature. Its various meanings depend, on the one hand, on the situation and context in which it is applied (E. Basin calls such a polysemy "speech"), and on the other hand, on its interpretation by perceiving individuals ("linguistic polysemy"). Both kinds of polysemy are not wholly arbitrary. As Basin writes, works of art are always perceived not only by the eye of the individual, but through him through the eyes of the "social subject" - society. That is why the "linguistic" meaning of works of art is largely determined by society and relatively independent of the individual. Thus, in art, in addition to “speech” meaning and “speech” polysemy, there is a linguistic meaning - a relatively stable social and generally significant ". Nevertheless, the ambiguity of the expressive means of art remains an indisputable fact. Both in music and in painting, yes

and in any kind of art, the sign cannot be unambiguous. The content (the meaning that the author puts into it) is not always read by the addressee completely adequately. Sometimes this content can be even more complete than the author himself intended. Often the content that the perceiver extracts is already the one that the artist had in mind. The specificity of music lies in the fact that great importance when perceived, it has a fulfillment. Cases are well known when the first performance decided the fate of a work. And even when we look only at the musical text, we unwittingly act as an interpreter. (However, when perceiving a pictorial canvas, we are in a certain way its interpreter.) It is no coincidence that the performance of his works is so important for a composer. The second difference of an artistic sign is that it cannot be isolated from a given context and used without changes in another context, as is typical for an ordinary sign. Finally, the most important differences are the large independent role of the form of an artistic sign and its different relationship with content than that of ordinary signs. With them, in most cases, the material form is arbitrary in relation to the meaning. In art, even with a slight change in form, the content also changes. We are not indifferent, for example, in what register, what instrument, at what tempo this or that melody is performed, not to mention the change in at least one or two sounds in it. In the same way, without prejudice to the content, one cannot rearrange the words in verses, thereby changing the rhythm, or replace any word with a synonym. One of the reasons for the impossibility of getting a complete picture of a painting from a reproduction is the change, even when high level technology, all elements of form, color, texture, etc. That is why the concept of "artistic sign" can only be used as a metaphor.

Since we are interested in the nature of the correspondence of artistic signs to the forms of real objects, from all the numerous existing classifications of signs, we take the one that is based on the division of signs according to their type of relationship with denotations (it was first proposed by C. Pierce). And although today semiotics has gone far from Peirce's theory and is often very critical of it, this kind of classification of signs can help explain the specifics of artistic signs in many ways. From this point of view, signs are divided into three groups:

• 1) signs-images (iconic signs);
• 2) signs-signs (symptoms, indexes, indicators);
• 3) conventional signs (signs-symbols).

By analogy with this, three main types can be distinguished among artistic signs: artistic images that will be close to classical signs-images, artistic “expressive devices” (including intonational signs) and artistic “symbolic means”. The term "symbol" is ambiguous and has different meanings in different areas. Therefore, it should be borne in mind that here it is used only in one of many senses, namely as a designation of elements of an artistic form, which are analogous to conventional sign and which must be compared with types of signs outside of art. However, before such a comparison can be made, an important caveat must be made. It should be emphasized that the proposed division of artistic signs is exceptionally approximate, conditional, arising from the ambiguity and multifunctionality of each of them. Specific artistic medium, used in a particular work of art, is characterized simultaneously from the pictorial, and from the expressive, and from the symbolic (conventional sign) sides. Artistic depiction and artistic symbolic means are always, to some extent, expressive devices at the same time, since emotional expressiveness is an integral, obligatory quality of any art and “permeates” through and through the entire fabric of a work of art. Expressive device and symbolic means often (although not always, not in all types of art) have at least some features of the image. Finally, images and expressive devices necessarily contain features of conventionality, which brings them closer to symbolic means. Therefore, it is more accurate to speak of the coexistence of three types of artistic signs.

In relation to the language of art, the concept of a sign system can only be partially applied.

An artistic language has three properties of a sign system: the connection of existing "signs" and the introduction of new ones based on rules, the dependence of the meaning of a "sign" on its place in the system. But other properties of the usual sign system are not inherent in it. It is impossible to compile a “dictionary” of the means used in this kind of art for several reasons, and in particular, due to the fact that the artist almost does not use ready-made means created by others, but creates new means on the model of those that existed before. Consequently, the language of each type of art is not a set of ready-made "signs" ("words"), but only certain typical forms, from which the author repels when creating his own language, which consists largely of new original elements. In the absence of such elements, the artist's work is perceived as banal in terms of language, epigone, having no independent value, although more than once there have been projects to create a dictionary of artistic language, for example, music, based on linking it to natural language.

Another difference between an artistic language and a sign system is the impossibility of translating texts created on its basis into another language. artistic language. Here we have in mind not well-known cases of creating new, independent works in one type of art based on images of another type (software musical composition on the plot of a poem or painting, a theatrical staging or film adaptation of a novel, etc.), namely, translations that are entirely equivalent to the original, capable of replacing it.

The stated position is not refuted by the well-known fact of the existence of full-fledged translations from one language into another in the literature. The fact is that when translating prose, the artistic language (as a system of figurative means) does not change at all; only the material (verbal language) becomes different. In poetry, however, translation becomes a form of independent creativity, since in the transition to another verbal language, part of the figurative means of the original inevitably changes. However, this also applies to many prose works marked by a high degree of poetry.

IN different types art, different signs can have similar content, and, conversely, similar signs can express different content: the art of painting and music are different sign systems. N. N. Punin wrote about this:

What is said once and in this particular language cannot be repeated by translating into another language - this is the law for all artistic creativity 1 .

M. M. Bakhtin also speaks about this. However, linking the impossibility of translation from one language of art to another with the problem of the text, Bakhtin writes:

Behind every text is a system of language. In the text, it corresponds to everything repeated and reproduced and repeated and reproduced, everything that can be given outside the given text (givenness). But at the same time